Effects of various executive functions on adults’ and children’s walking.

Abstract

Walking is human’s most important locomotion. Until recently, walking was seen as an automated motor task that requires only minimal cognitive resources. However, recent studies indicate that walking requires higher-level cognitive processes such as executive functions. A different line of research suggests that executive functions consist of 3 core components: inhibition, switching, and updating. Combining these findings, the present study clarified which executive-function component is most essential for human walking. Applying a dual-task methodology, adults (n = 37) and 8- to 13-year-old children (n = 134) walked repeatedly across an electronic pathway while solving an inhibition, switching, and updating task. Both adults and children showed the largest gait alterations in the updating and switching task as opposed to inhibition. Likewise, their cognitive performance revealed the largest performance reductions from single- to dual-task situations in the updating task. Overall, our results highlight remarkable similarities in children’s and adults’ performance with updating working memory representations and switching between rule sets being the most essential cognitive processes for walking. These findings point to a general gait-cognition process. Results have important theoretical value and hold practical implications for creating effective intervention programs.

Slower pace in early walking onset is related to communication, motor skills, and adaptive function in autistic toddlers

“…There are known to be EF deficits in individuals with autism and gait is dependent on both motor and EF processes (Christoforou et al, 2023; Yogev‐Seligmann et al, 2008). Motor studies in adults and older children have found altered spatiotemporal variables of gait, such as slowing of gait speed, when measured while participants conduct concurrent EF tasks (Möhring et al, 2020; Rabaglietti et al, 2019). Given that many domains of EF are forming at this age, future studies evaluating the influence of these cognitive functions during motor assessments would be beneficial in better understanding this relationship in autistic toddlers.…”

“…There are known to be EF deficits in individuals with autism and gait is dependent on both motor and EF processes (Christoforou et al, 2023;Yogev-Seligmann et al, 2008). Motor studies in adults and older children have found altered spatiotemporal variables of gait, such as slowing of gait speed, when measured while participants conduct concurrent EF tasks (Möhring et al, 2020;Rabaglietti et al, 2019).…”

Aerobic fitness and fine motor skills are related to switching and updating in typically developing children

“…At the end of this session, children performed a Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER; Léger et al, 1988 ). Within this first session, participants also performed several dual tasks that are described elsewhere and are beyond the scope of the present study (Möhring et al, 2020 ). The second assessment session included standardized batteries such as the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd edition (M-ABC-2; Henderson et al, 2007 ).…”

Perspective: Acknowledging complexity to advance the understanding of developmental coordination disorder

“…This indicated that it may be possible to predict future cognitive delays and manage them sooner in parallel to motor support (Piek et al, 2008). In addition, the executive functions of working memory and task-switching can be recruited during walking among typically developing children (Möhring et al, 2020), indicating that the task of walking alone is not exclusive to the motor system. However, it is not yet clear if cognitive resources are allocated in order to walk, or as a product of walking (Leisman et al, 2016).…”

“…This is evident through a lack of consensus on the potential for and nature of DCD subtypes (Vaivre-Douret et al, 2011;Lust et al, 2022), which becomes even more complex when considering additional subtypes for motor and cognitive skills (Asonitou et al, 2022). Furthermore, the motor system does not act alone, often integrating cognitive resources such as executive functions Meachon 10.3389/fnhum.2022.1082209 (Diamond, 2000;Asonitou et al, 2012;Leisman et al, 2016;Möhring et al, 2020). Therefore, it can be a challenge to isolate and describe motor symptoms of DCD, as they often are closely intertwined with high order cognitive processes.…”