“…Various methods have been developed over the years to estimate the probability of failure, which can generally be classified into four categories, i.e. approximate analytical methods (Lee et al ., 2012; Lopez et al ., 2015), numerical simulation methods (Naess et al ., 2012; Papaioannou et al ., 2016; Alvarez et al ., 2018), moment methods (Zhao and Ono, 2001; He et al ., 2019; Xu and Zhu, 2019; Miao et al ., 2020) and surrogate-based methods (Zhou et al ., 2019; Roy et al ., 2019; Wang et al ., 2021b). The first-order reliability method (FORM) (Shinozuka, 1983; Huang et al ., 2018) and second-order reliability method (SORM) (Der Kiureghian et al ., 1987; Mansour and Olsson, 2014) are two representative approaches in the category of approximate analytical methods, and they approximate the performance function using Taylor series expansion at the most probable failure point (MPP).…”