Efficient Vector-Based Forwarding for Underwater Sensor Networks

Abstract

Underwater Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are significantly different from terrestrial sensor networks in the following aspects: low bandwidth, high latency, node mobility, high error probability, and 3-dimensional space. These new features bring many challenges to the network protocol design of UWSNs. In this paper, we tackle one fundamental problem in UWSNs: robust, scalable, and energy efficient routing. We propose vector-based forwarding (VBF), a geographic routing protocol. In VBF, the forwarding path is guided by a vector from the source to the target, no state information is required on the sensor nodes, and only a small fraction of the nodes is involved in routing. To improve the robustness, packets are forwarded in redundant and interleaved paths. Further, a localized and distributed self-adaptation algorithm allows the nodes to reduce energy consumption by discarding redundant packets. VBF performs well in dense networks. For sparse networks, we propose a hop-by-hop vector-based forwarding (HH-VBF) protocol, which adapts the vector-based approach at every hop. We evaluate the performance of VBF and HH-VBF through extensive simulations. The simulation results show that VBF achieves high packet delivery ratio and energy efficiency in dense networks and HH-VBF has high packet delivery ratio even in sparse networks.EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking 40 km×kbps as the maximum attainable Range×Rate product.(ii) UWSNs Are Highly Dynamic. The underwater sensor networks we target are highly mobile networks where sensor nodes are not fixed and they will float with water currents. From empirical observations, underwater objects may move at the speed of 2-3 knots (or 3-6 kilometers per hour) in a typical underwater condition [6,7]. This kind of mobility results in a highly dynamic network topology.(iii) UWSNs Are Highly Error-Prone. Underwater acoustic communication channels are significantly affected by many factors such as signal attenuation, noise, multipath, Doppler spread, and even water temperature. All these factors cause high bit-error and delay variance. Thus, communication links in UWSNs are highly error-prone. Moreover, sensor nodes are more vulnerable in harsh underwater environments. Compared with their terrestrial counterparts, underwater sensor networks have a higher node-failure rate and packet-loss probability.(iv) UWSNs Are Three-Dimensional. UWSNs are usually deployed in a three-dimensional space. This is different from the 2-dimensional deployment of most terrestrial sensor networks.These characteristics of UWSNs bring up many new challenges and make the existing routing protocols for terrestrial sensor networks unsuitable here. For UWSNs, the routing protocols should be able to handle the node mobility and the unreliable communication links with high energy efficiency. Routing Challenges in UWSNs.UWSNs are highly dynamic networks, which makes existing routing protocols for stationary or quasistationary networks unsuitable. In UWSNs, the mobility speed of nodes is around 1-3 mete...

A survey on deployment techniques, localization algorithms, and research challenges for underwater acoustic sensor networks

“…To be able to do data caching because of the intermittent underwater channel, they have enough storage capacity. Underwater acoustic sensor networks are generally sparsely deployed networks due to the involved costs and deployment‐related challenges . Table presents a summary of the research challenges.…”

“…Underwater acoustic sensor networks are generally sparsely deployed networks due to the involved costs and deployment-related challenges. 97 Table 8 presents a summary of the research challenges.…”

A Survey on Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks: Perspectives on Protocol Design for Signaling, MAC and Routing

“…Of course, there are some path-based protocols in this respect based on TDMA, OFDMA and so on, read more information about them in [13] [45]. Two most famous multi-path routing protocols are VBF [17] [41] and DBR [18]. Already, there are many extensions based on both, for example EE-DBR [14], D-DBR [15], EELD-DBR [16] for DBR and HH-VBF [19], AHH-VBF [3], CDZ-VBF [20], SD-VBF [6] and RC-VBF [21] for VBF.…”

An Improved Forwarding of Diverse Events with Mobile Sinks in Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks

“…Nodes within the range of vector are selected as candidates for forwarding process. EVBF (Efficient-VBF) [20] is an extension and improvement in VBF, in which “desirable-ness” factor α and adaptation time $T_{adaptation}$ are utilized in forwarding and selecting most suitable forwarder. This protocol is workable for both sink based queries and source generated queries.…”