currently, lead (pb) has become a severe environmental pollutant and fungi hold a promising potential for the remediation of pb-containing wastewater. the present study showed that Penicillium polonicum was able to tolerate 4 mmol/L Pb(II), and remove 90.3% of them in 12 days through three mechanisms: extracellular immobilization, cell wall adsorption, and intracellular bioaccumulation. in this paper. the three mechanisms were studied by Raman, X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SeM), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ftiR) and transmission electron microscopy (teM). the results indicated that pb(ii) was immobilized as lead oxalate outside the fungal cell, bound with phosphate, nitro, halide, hydroxyl, amino, and carboxyl groups on the cell wall, precipitated as pyromorphite [pb 5 (po 4) 3 Cl] on the cell wall, and reduced to Pb(0) inside the cell. These combined results provide a basis for additionally understanding the mechanisms of pb(ii) removal by P. polonicum and developing remediation strategies using this fungus for lead-polluted water. The discharge of Pb-containing wastes from increased industrialization and human activities have resulted in negative impacts on the environment 1. Lead (Pb) upsets ecosystems, and endangers human health through bioaccumulation within the food chain 2. Consequently, various physicochemical treatment methods such as precipitation, coagulation, ionic exchange, inverse osmosis and adsorption have been used to remediate environmental Pb-containing contamination 3. However, such conventional methods involve either high operational costs or ineffective removal of Pb(II) at ppm levels, and may also cause secondary pollution during the repair process 4,5. In contrast, bioremediation has unique advantages, including adequate availability of materials, low cost, and no secondary pollution. Therefore, bioremediation continues to attract significant attention for the development of remedial alternatives 6-8. Over the last decade, filamentous fungi have emerged as versatile bioremediation agents owing to their adaptability to extreme conditions of pH, temperature, and nutrient availability as well as tolerance to high metal concentrations 9,10. A variety of fungal species with the ability to remove Pb(II) from aqueous solutions. For example, the Pb(II) uptake capacity for Saccharomyces cerevisiae 11 , Mucor rouxii 1 , Aspergillus niger 12 and Penicillium polonicum 13 is reported as 85.6, 74.6, 34.4 and 75.2 mg/g, respectively, indicating that the filamentous fungi have promising potential to be used for the Pb(II) polluted sewage treatment. Under stress from high concentrations of Pb(II), filamentous fungi possess various mechanisms for the removal of Pb(II) from aqueous systems 14 , One such mechanism is extracellular immobilization. In the presence of Pb(II) stress, various metabolic processes are stimulated and Pb(II) is chelated by excreted metabolites. Low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) such as oxalic acid may play a significant role in...