Electrocardiographic aspects of skin diving

Bonneau, A; Friemel, F; Lapierre, D.

doi:10.1007/bf02330702

Cited by 13 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 11 publications

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“…Signi®cant increases in T-wave amplitude were observed during breath-holding in head-out immersion and submersion. Similar results have been obtained by Bonneau et al (1989) and Olsen et al (1962). An increased blood volume in the aorta at end-diastole during breath-hold diving would cause an increased diculty in ejecting blood from the heart to the aorta, and would cause an increase in end-diastolic cardiac volume.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 86%

Blood flow in the carotid artery during breath-holding in relation to diving bradycardia

Pan

Kinouchi

et al. 1997

European Journal of Applied Physiology

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The present study investigated the mechanism of diving bradycardia. A group of 14 healthy untrained male subjects were examined during breath-holding either out of the water (30-33 degrees C), in heat-out immersion, or in whole-body submersion (27-29 degrees C) in a diving pool. Blood velocity, blood volume flow in the carotid artery, diastolic blood pressure and electrocardiogram were measured and recorded during the experiments. The peak blood velocity increased by 13.6% (P < 0.01) and R-wave amplitude increased by 57.1% (P < 0.005) when the subjects entered water from air. End-diastolic blood velocity (Ved) in the carotid artery increased significantly during breath-holding, e.g. Ved increased from 0.20 (SD 0.02) m.s-1 at rest to 0.33 (SD 0.04) m.s-1 (P < 0.001) at 50.0 s in breath-hold submersion to a 2.0-m depth. Blood volume flow in the carotid artery increased by 26.6% (P < 0.05) at 30 s and 36.6% (P < 0.001) at 40 s in breath-hold submersion to a 2.0-m depth. Diastolic blood pressure increased by 15.4% (P < 0.01) at 60 s during breath-holding in head-out immersion. Blood volume flow, Ved and diastolic blood pressure increased significantly more and faster during breath-holding in submersion than out of the water. There was a good negative correlation with the heart rate: the root mean square correlation coefficient r was 0.73 (P < 0.001). It was concluded that an increased accumulation of blood in the aorta and arteries at end-diastole and decreased venous return, caused by an increase in systemic peripheral resistance during breath-holding, underlies diving bradycardia.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 86%

Blood flow in the carotid artery during breath-holding in relation to diving bradycardia

Pan

Kinouchi

et al. 1997

European Journal of Applied Physiology

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“…Our results showed that these times were correlated with the HR reduction (p < 0.05), so those divers who held their breath the longest had the cardiac rhythms that decreased the most, confirming the findings of a more pronounced diving response in trained subjects [4,12,13,16,28,34,38]. Some authors have argued that apnea training increases vagal tone, thereby increasing the response to facial immersion [38].…”

Section: Heart Rate Responsesupporting

confidence: 92%

“…The blackout is caused by hypoxia and may also result from events such as cardiac arrhythmia. The main cause is nevertheless respiratory: simply staying underwater too long [4,17,39]. Underwater blackout has been attributed to hypoxia without hypercapnia during apnea performed after hyperventilation [9,18].…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Heart Rate Responses During a Breath-Holding Competition in Well-Trained Divers

Lemaître

Bernier²,

Petit³

et al. 2005

Int J Sports Med

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The diving response elicited by breath-holding (BH) and immersion mainly consists of bradycardia, decreased cardiac output, and peripheral vasoconstriction. These responses reduce oxygen consumption and thereby prolong the duration of the dive. They may also lead to cardiac arrhythmias or hypoxia, however, which in turn may play a role in the occurrence of syncope during BH. The aim of the present study was to analyze the cardiac responses to prolonged breath-holding in elite divers during a competition. Heart rate behaviour and the incidence of arrhythmia were recorded in 16 well-trained breath-hold divers (BHD) using a cardio-frequency meter (for 15 divers) and a Holter (for one diver) during maximal static breath-holding. Anthropometric, spirometric, and training characteristics such as percentage of body fat, pulmonary volumes and years of BH training were also determined. Forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV (1)) were higher than the predicted values (+7.7%, p<0.05 and+6.6%, p<0.05, respectively). During the static BH, divers presented apneic bradycardia (-44%) correlated with static BH times (p<0.05); this was associated with cardiac arrhythmias (supraventricular extrasystoles and ventricular extrasystoles) in the Holter-equipped subject. These results are in agreement with those obtained in laboratory conditions and confirm the existence of cardiac arrhythmias in well-trained BHD.

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“…Dysrhythmic beats are a common ®nding during breath-hold diving, even at shallow depths (Olsen et al 1962;Scholander et al 1962;Sasamoto 1965;Paulev 1968;McDonough et al 1987;Bonneau et al 1989;Tipton et al 1994). Their frequent occurrence during actual and simulated dives, however, is not associated with either other clinical signs or with symptoms reported by the divers, even though a drowning syndrome may occur in patients after a period of 5±10 s without a heart contraction.…”

Section: The Hypothesis Of a Diving Response In Humansmentioning

confidence: 97%

Extreme human breath-hold diving

Ferretti¹

2001

Eur J Appl Physiol

148

155

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In this paper, the respiratory, circulatory and metabolic adjustments to human extreme breath-hold diving are reviewed. A survey of the literature reveals that in extreme divers, adaptive mechanisms take place that allow prolongation of apnoea beyond the limits attained by non-diving subjects, and preservation of oxygen stores during the dives. The occurrence of a diving response, including peripheral vasoconstriction, increased arterial blood pressure, bradycardia and lowered cardiac output, is strongly implicated. Some peripheral regions may be excluded from perfusion, with consequent reliance on anaerobic metabolism. In addition, extreme breath-hold divers show a blunted ventilatory response to carbon dioxide breathing, possibly as a consequence of frequent exposure to high carbon dioxide partial pressures during the dives. These mechanisms allow the attainment of particularly low alveolar oxygen (< 30 mmHg) and high alveolar carbon dioxide (> 50 mmHg) partial pressures at the end of maximal dry breath-holds, and reduce oxygen consumption during the dive at the expense of increased anaerobic glycolysis (rate of blood lactate accumulation > 0.04 mM.s-1). The current absolute world record for depth in breath-hold diving is 150 m. Its further improvement depends upon how far the equilibrium between starting oxygen stores, the overall rate of energy expenditure, the fraction of energy provided by anaerobic metabolism and the diving speed can be pushed, with consciousness upon emersion. The ultimate limit to breath-hold diving records may indeed be imposed by an energetic constraint.

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Electrocardiographic aspects of skin diving

Cited by 13 publications

References 11 publications

Blood flow in the carotid artery during breath-holding in relation to diving bradycardia

Blood flow in the carotid artery during breath-holding in relation to diving bradycardia

Heart Rate Responses During a Breath-Holding Competition in Well-Trained Divers

Extreme human breath-hold diving

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