Electrochemical approaches towards sensing viruses: A mini review

Abstract

The world is exposed to a large number of pathogens that are primarily responsible for variety of diseases in humans and animals. These pathogens are divided into five broad categories such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms. They enter the human body and utilize the body's resources to replicate, before exiting and infecting a new host, while weakening the immune system. In the class of pathogens, viruses are unique in that they kill host cells. We have been threatened by pathogens for centuries and our ability to reduce morbidity becomes obvious when we examine our average life span. Life expectancy of humans in the early 19th century was 40 years, which increased to 58 years in 1950 and then to 72 years in 1972. This gradual increase is due to better understanding of the biology of these pathogens, along with established methods for their detection and treatment. In 1940, influenza viruses A and B were detected and two vaccine protections against them were discovered in 1942. The H2N2 virus of 1957 resulted in deaths globally and led to the discovery of an antiviral medication in 1966. Another pandemic caused by H3N2 influenza virus resulted in several deaths in the United States and worldwide. The 2009 human influenza A H1N1 virus caused an annual global attack rate of 5%-10% in adults and 20%-30% in children; in one year (April 2009 to April 2010), 60.8 million cases were identified with a large number of deaths occurring in USA (https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pande mic-resou rces/2009-h1n1-pande mic.html, https://www.cdc.gov/flu/pande mic-resou rces/pande mic-timel ine-1930-and-beyond.html). Influenza virus infection occurred via inhalation of virus laden particles or direct contact with virus contaminated surfaces (Choi et al., 2002; Couch, 2003). The solution to the problem of virus attack is to detect them with precautions to suitably control or eliminate them. This review is oriented towards the detection of the viruses. 2 | ME THODOLOGY FOR DE TEC TION OF VIRUS E S Historically, respiratory virus infections have been diagnosed by a combination of techniques such as enzyme immune assay, direct fluorescence antibody, staining, cell culture and nucleic acid amplification

Removal of Coliphage MS2 Using a Microbial Fuel Cell Stack

“…It will be necessary to carry out more research in this are [1]. The enriched microbial consortia are also rich in proteolytic enzymes, which could have affected the virus inactivation; proteolytic enzymes are known for their efficient degradation in feces and sewage [1,2,28]. In addition, an electroactive community that is able to metabolize the available carbon energy into electricity could be responsible for the killing or suppression of pathogenic bacteria and viruses as a result of antagonism from the incumbent biofilm competition against these incoming pathogenic perpetrators [29].…”

Advancements in Airborne Viral Nucleic Acid Detection with Wearable Devices

“…[27] This is particularly advantageous as the viral subtype can determine infectivity and the severity of infection. [28,29] While several recent reviews provide an in-depth investigation of each unit operation, [30][31][32][33] to the best of our knowledge, none focus on integrating these unit operations into a single wearable sensor for airborne viral monitoring. Thus, our review fills an important gap in the literature with the intended goal of spurring future work.…”

A Comprehensive Review of Metal–Organic Framework: Synthesis, Characterization, and Investigation of Their Application in Electrochemical Biosensors for Biomedical Analysis

“…Moreover, we witness the increasing growth of multiple pathogenic diseases such as viral and bacterial infections, and diseases due to exposure to toxins. Diagnosing such diseases at the initial stages would result in the use of preventative drugs instead of conventional ones [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Pharmaceutical drugs are used for diagnosing, preventing, and/or treating diseases through their biological effects on human bodies.…”