“…Enzymes, antibodies, cells or tissues, which possess high biological activity, can be immobilized at the surface of the transducer using various procedures. These include entrapment behind a membrane, entrapment within a polymeric matrix, entrapment within self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), covalent bonding on surfaces or membranes activated by bifunctional groups or spacers, and bulk modification of the entire electrode material [33,34,52,[54][55][56]60,[64][65][66][67][68][69][70]. Electrochemical biosensors commonly used are of three types of recognition elements: (1) enzymes, which are the most common and welldeveloped recognition system, and can be either mono-or multi-enzyme-based; (2) whole cells (microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, eukaryotic cells, or yeast) or cell organelles or particles (such as mitochondria and cell walls); and (3) tissues (such as plant or animal tissue slices) [71].…”