Electrohydrodynamic Forming

Abstract

SynonymsEnvironmental toxicology; Nano-ecotoxicology; Toxicity of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles on Prokaryotes (bacteria), unicellular and invertebrate Eukaryotes DefinitionA toxic product is a chemical compound that harms the environment by affecting the biological organisms. Due to their novel properties, nanoparticles (NPs) cannot be considered as other organic and inorganic xenobiotics in the environment, e.g., pesticides, HAPs and PCBs dissolved metals, or also medicines. NPs have a mass, a charge, and above all a surface area. They are subject to phenomena of classical and quantum physics. Their reactivity means that their surface atoms are labile, easily change their redox state, and highly reactive with respect to compounds in the environment. Considering the huge range of applications using NPs, it seems reasonable to expect their dissemination in the environment at each step in their life cycle, from design through production to use and disposal of finished products. To date, the data available show that NPs can cross biological membranes and distribute themselves within different compartments of living organisms, or can also induce a remote toxicity. Consequently, there is a need to elucidate how the NPs can lead to adverse effects on organisms in their natural environment, considering not only their effects on target organs and life traits, but also their fate and transfers within the food webs ( Fig. 1) (Box 1). Box 1: Ecosystem and Food ChainsAn ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology, as it includes both organisms and their abiotic environments (Fig. 1). It represents the highest level of ecological integration based on energy and biomass transfers. It is defined as a specific unit of all the organisms occupying a given area that interacts with the physical environment producing distinct trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycling. OverviewThe number of available publications (Fig. 2) dealing with the environmental impacts of NPs (called nano-ecotoxicology [1]) is presented in Fig. 2. Studies regarding algae, protozoa, and invertebrates are more recent (since 2006) than the ones regarding bacteria (which started in the 1980s) (ISI Web of Knowledge source) (Box 2). As a consequence, researches on bactericidal effects are more advanced (already at the scale of biofilms and the microbial community Ecotoxicity of Inorganic Nanoparticles: From Unicellular Organisms to Invertebrates structures), while for the other models nanoecotoxicology is still in its infancy (at the individual scale). About 30 species of invertebrates are studied regarding the three main ecosystemic domains: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial. For each domain, the Crustacean Cladocera Daphniidae (freshwater), the Mollusks Bivalvia Mytilidae, and Annelids Polychaetes (marine) are the most studied invertebrates, while the terrestrial (earthworms and isopods) examples are scarce.Considering the three-domain system that divides cellular life into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains (based on diff...