Embitterment as a Specific Mental Health Reaction during the Coronavirus Pandemic

Abstract

<b><i>Introduction:</i></b> Embitterment can occur as a reaction to perceived injustice. During the pandemic and restrictions in daily living due to infection risk management, a range of many smaller or severe injustices have occurred. <b><i>Objective:</i></b> The aim of this study is to investigate what characterizes persons with high embitterment, mental illness, embitterment and mental illness, and those without embitterment or mental health problems. <b><i>Methods:</i></b> We conducted an online survey including persons from the general population in November 2020 and December 2020, the phase during which a second lockdown took place, with closed shops, restaurants, cultural and activity sites. 3,208 participants (mean age 47 years) gave self-ratings on their present well-being, burdens experienced during the pandemic, embitterment, wisdom, and resilience. <b><i>Results:</i></b> Embitterment occurred among 16% of the sample, which is a high rate in comparison with 4% during pre-pandemic times. Embitterment was weakly correlated with unspecific mental well-being. There were more persons with embitterment than those with embitterment and a mental health problem. Persons with embitterment reported less coronavirus-related anxiety than persons without embitterment. However, embittered persons reported more social and economic burdens and more frequent experiences of losses (job loss and canceling of medical treatments). Embittered persons perceive their own wisdom competencies on a similar level as persons with mental health problems or persons without mental health problems. <b><i>Conclusion:</i></b> Embitterment is a specific potentially alone-standing affective state, which is distinguishable from general mental health and coping capacities (here: wisdom). The economic and social consequences of pandemic management should be carefully recognized and prevented by policy.

How Social Exclusion, Embitterment, and Conspiracy Beliefs Mediate Individual’s Intention to Vaccination against COVID-19: Results from a Moderated Serial Mediation Analysis

“…That is, for embittered individuals, a vaccination may be seen as a potential resource to be invested in order to preserve resources and avoid more losses, such as the potential loss of a job or leisure activity in case of a vaccination refusal [ 5 ]. This also goes in line with the findings of Muschalla et al [ 7 ], where embitterment was more connected with worries about the pandemic (e.g., job loss) than worries about the virus itself. In addition, since individuals showing a high degree of embitterment feel that their deeds are not recognized [ 14 ], they may feel that the vaccination is somewhat of an indemnity, which is why they might particularly feel privileged to receive a vaccination.…”

“…It is important to note that state-like accentuations are still possible [9]. Clearly, results from this study and from Muschalla et al [7] show evidence that pandemic-related stress may be associated with embitterment. Still, it may be possible that individuals high in state-embitterment may engage differently in vaccination offers than chronic (trait) embittered individuals.…”

“…That is, individuals' dissatisfaction with governmental communication may stem from a lack of clarity and understanding on how and which resources are being retracted from them. This also goes along with bitterness in the notion that resource losses are perceived not only as more significant (principle one; [ 5 ]) but also may perceive the loss due to the measures as an unjust transgression [ 7 ].…”

“…For some individuals, these have not been valuable resources in dealing with the pandemic. As a consequence, some individuals may hold the feeling of being robbed of basic rights by the governments' interventions and process the impact of the pandemic in a bitter way [ 6 , 7 ]. Embitterment can be defined as a feeling of disappointment and anger in response to perceived injustices by others toward the self [ 8 , 9 ] and to negative life events [ 10 , 11 ], and is accompanied by feelings of social exclusion [ 12 , 13 , 14 ], a lack of social support [ 10 , 15 ], and the perception of unrightfully been let down [ 16 ].…”

“…With regard to the pandemic, some individuals may feel transgressed in their basic value system or lost their job, while others may mourn for the loss of a loved one or had no possibility for valediction [ 17 ]. Muschalla et al [ 7 ] recently found an increased trend in embitterment within a large representative-near sample. Results further indicated that embitterment was more related to perception of resource losses due to the pandemic than with virus-related anxieties.…”