Encystment and reproduction of the predatory dinoflagellate, Polykrikos kofoidi Chatton (Gymnodiniales)

Morey-Gaines, G.; Ruse, Roseanne H.

doi:10.2216/i0031-8884-19-3-230.1

Cited by 33 publications

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“…However, because of the pseudocolonial nature of the cells, vegetative growth includes a binary fission of the 8‐zooid pseudocolony that is not of the oblique type but is a transverse division. This fission of the pseudocolony after doubling of the zooid number was documented previously for P. kofoidii (Morey‐Gaines and Ruse , Nagai et al. , Matsuoka et al.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 81%

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Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Tillmann

Hoppenrath

2013

Journal of Phycology

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The athecate, pseudocolonial polykrikoid dinoflag-ellates show a greater morphological complexity than many other dinoflagellate cells and contain not only elaborate extrusomes but sulci, cinguli, flagellar pairs, and nuclei in multiple copies. Among polykrikoids, Polykrikos kofoidii is a common species that plays an important role as a grazer of toxic planktonic algae but whose life cycle is poorly known. In this study, the main life cycle stages of P. kofoidii were examined and documented for the first time. The formation of gametes, 2-zooid-1-nucleus stages very different from vegetative cells, was observed and the process of gamete fusion, isogamy, was recorded. Karyogamy followed shortly after completed plasmogamy. A complex reorganization of furrows (cinguli and sulci) and flagella followed zygote formation, resulting in a 4-zooid zygote with one nucleus. The fate of zygotes under different nutritional conditions was also investigated; well-fed zygotes were able to reenter the vegetative cycle via meiotic divisions as indicated by nuclear cyclosis. However, nuclear cyclosis was preceded by a presumably mitotic division of the primary zygote nucleus which by definition would imply that P. kofoidii has a diplohaplontic life cycle. Nuclear cyclosis in germlings hatched from spiny resting cysts indicate that these cysts are of zygote origin (hypnozygotes). Hypnozygote formation, cyst hatching, the morphology of the germling (a 1-zooid cell), and its development into a normal pseudocolony are documented here for the first time. There is evidence that P. kofoidii has a system of complex heterothallism.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 81%

“…Polykrikos kofoidii produces conspicuous spiny resting cysts that were first linked to this species by Morey‐Gaines and Ruse (). The authors also described a transverse binary fission of the vegetative pseudocolony after doubling of the zooid number.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Tillmann

Hoppenrath

2013

Journal of Phycology

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“…The identification of cysts was aided by the following publications for biological records: Wall & Dale (1968a, 1968b; Dale (1979Dale ( , 1983; Loeblich & Loeblich (1984); Morey-Gaines & Ruse (1980); and for paleontological records: Sarjeant (1984); Deflandre & Cookson (1955);Wall (1965). Motile stage identifications were aided by: Dale (1977); Wood (1968); Dodge (1982); Schradie & Bliss (1962).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dinoflagellate resting cysts isolated from sediments in Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand

Baldwin¹

1987

New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research

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Seventeen species of dinoflagellate resting cysts have been recorded for the first time in New Zealand. Isolated from sediments at 93 locations in the Marlborough Sounds, these were Gonyaulax spinifera, G. grindleyi, G. polyedra, G. digitalis, Gonyaulax sp., Protoperidinium subinerme, P. pentagonum, P. conicum, P. oblongum, P. leonis, P. cf punctulatum, P. cf. conicoides, Peridinium stellatum, Peridinium sp., Scrippsiella trochoidea, Polykrikos schwartzii, and Diplopsalis sp. here possible their identities were confirmed by hatching experiments yielding live motile cells. Greatest cyst concentrations and species diversity were found in Kenepuru Sound and Tennyson Inlet. These areas may be more likely to harbour toxic species causing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) or diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) if these were to appear in the future.

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“…We interpret the 16‐zooid pseudocolonies in P. schwartzii and the 8‐zooid pseudocolonies in P. kofoidii as early dividing stages. The single‐cell stage described by Morey‐Gaines and Ruse (1980) in P. kofoidii is unconvincing because the mechanism behind the segregation of the two nuclei in this species was not addressed, and Nagai et al (2002) were not able to verify this observation.…”

Section: Morphological Features Of Pheopolykrikos and Polykrikos Spementioning

confidence: 99%

CHARACTER EVOLUTION IN POLYKRIKOID DINOFLAGELLATES¹

Hoppenrath

Leander

2007

Journal of Phycology

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A synthesis of available data on the morphological diversity of polykrikoid dinoflagellates allowed us to formulate a hypothesis of relationships that help explain character evolution within the group. Phylogenetic analyses of new SSU rDNA sequences from Pheopolykrikos beauchampii Chatton, Polykrikos kofoidii Chatton, and Polykrikos lebourae Herdman helped refine this hypothetical framework. Our results demonstrated that ''pseudocolonies'' in dinoflagellates evolved convergently at least three times independently from different Gymnodinium-like ancestors: once in haplozoans; once in Ph. beauchampii; and at least once within a lineage containing Ph. hartmannii, P. kofoidii, and P. lebourae. The Gymnodiniales sensu stricto was strongly supported by the data, and the type species for the genus, namely Gymnodinium fuscum (Ehrenb.) F. Stein, formed the nearest sister lineage to a well-supported Polykrikos clade. The best synapomorphy for the Polykrikos clade was the presence of two nuclei irrespective of zooid number. Two unidentified Gymnodinium species formed the nearest sister clade to Ph. beauchampii, which has four nuclei and four zooids per pseudocolony. The chain-forming dinoflagellate G. catenatum L. W. Graham branched closely to the clade containing all members of Polykrikos and Pheopolykrikos, suggesting that an ancestral capacity toward chain formation existed before the evolution of pseudocolonies in this group. Our results also clarified the phylogenetic significance of nematocysts, ocelloids, and photosynthesis in reconstructing the evolution of polykrikoids and warnowiids. The molecular phylogenies exposed taxonomic problems associated with Polykrikos, Pheopolykrikos, and Gymnodinium, and suggested that a revision for some of these genera is warranted.The dinoflagellate genus Polykrikos was erected by Bütschli (1873), with the type species P. schwartzii Bütschli. The most distinctive feature of this athecate genus is the formation of multinucleated pseudocolonies comprised of an even number of zooids that are otherwise similar in morphology to individual dinoflagellates in external view. However, despite every zooid having its own cingulum and pair of flagella, the zooid sulci are fused together. A pseudocolony often has half the number of nuclei because it has zooids. Trichocysts, nematocysts, taeniocysts, mucocysts, and plastids have all been reported from different members within the group. The genus currently comprises four species: P. schwartzii, P. kofoidii, P. lebourae, and P. grassei Lecal. The first three species are relatively well described and distinguishable from one another (

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Encystment and reproduction of the predatory dinoflagellate, Polykrikos kofoidi Chatton (Gymnodiniales)

Cited by 33 publications

References 0 publications

Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Dinoflagellate resting cysts isolated from sediments in Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand

CHARACTER EVOLUTION IN POLYKRIKOID DINOFLAGELLATES¹

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Encystment and reproduction of the predatory dinoflagellate, Polykrikos kofoidi Chatton (Gymnodiniales)

Cited by 33 publications

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Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Life Cycle of the pseudocolonial dinoflagellatePolykrikos kofoidii(Gymnodiniales, Dinoflagellata)

Dinoflagellate resting cysts isolated from sediments in Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand

CHARACTER EVOLUTION IN POLYKRIKOID DINOFLAGELLATES1

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CHARACTER EVOLUTION IN POLYKRIKOID DINOFLAGELLATES¹