Endocrine and aggressive responses to competition are moderated by contest outcome, gender, individual versus team competition, and implicit motives

Abstract

This study examined hormonal responses to competition in relation to gender, social context, and implicit motives. Participants (N = 326) were randomly assigned to win or lose in a 10-round, virtual face-to-face competition, in same-sex individual- and team-competition contexts. Saliva samples, taken before and twice after the competition, were assayed for testosterone (T), estradiol (E), progesterone (P), and cortisol (C). Implicit needs for power (nPower) and affiliation (nAffiliation) were assessed with a picture-story exercise before the competition. Aggression was measured via the volume at which participants set noise blasts for their opponents. Men competing individually and women competing as teams showed similar T increases after winning. C was differentially associated with outcome in the team matches, with higher post-match cortisol for winning women, and an opposite effect for male teams. Analyses including implicit motives indicated that situational variables interacted with motivational needs in shaping hormonal responses to competition: in naturally cycling women, nPower predicted T increases after winning and T and E decreases after losing. In men, nPower predicted T increases after losing and decreases after winning. In male teams, nPower predicted C increases after losing, but not after winning, whereas in individual competitions, nPower was a general negative predictor of C changes in women. nAffiliation predicted P increases for women competing as teams, and P decreases for women competing individually. Aggression was higher in men, losers, and teams than in women, winners, and individuals. High aggression was associated with high baseline C in women competing individually and with low baseline C and C decreases in women competing as teams and in men generally. Our findings suggest that while situational and gender factors play a role in hormonal responses to competition, they also depend on their interplay with motivational factors. They also suggest that while aggression is strongly affected by situational factors in the context of a competition, it has no direct association with motivational and hormonal correlates of dominance (nPower, T, E) and instead is associated with (mostly) low levels of C.

Low competitive status elicits aggression in healthy young men: behavioral and neural evidence

“…However, better 177 contenders can rely on their skill, whereas less successful ones may use aggression to hamper rivals' 178 progress [9,10]. Moreover, the frustration and loss of control entailed in being repeatedly defeated should 179 facilitate rather than suppress aggression in low-status contestants [7,8,31]. In a correlational analysis and 180 two laboratory experiments we found that low competitive status, measured as competitors' relative rank 181 in a hierarchy, was linked with more frequent and intense aggressive behavior.…”

“…Winners are often taken to be aggressive, not only in sportive environments [1,2] but in society at 2 large [3][4][5][6]. Contradicting this widely held assumption, the lower sense of control and the frustration 3 occasioned by frequent defeats is likely to fuel aggression in subordinate competitors [7,8]. Furthermore, 4 accomplished contestants can rely on their ability, whereas less proficient ones might compete more 5 aggressively to outweigh the skill differential.…”

The Mediator Role of Aggression in the Relationship between Marital Stress and Depression among Patients with Coronary Artery Disease

“…Unhealthy chronic marital relations are often accompanied by endocrine changes, which can interfere with cardiovascular functions and the immune system (16). Concerning psychological health, chronic marital stress can lead to increased aggressiveness due to endocrine changes such as an elevation in the cortisol levels (17). Anger and hostility are factors related to marital conflict, which are often accompanied by hypertension and exaggerated physiological reactions such as variances in heart rate.…”

Reproductive hormone measurement from minimally invasive sample types: Methodological considerations and anthropological importance

“…These same patterns have also been demonstrated among women, with testosterone levels increasing in anticipation of competitive matches and remaining elevated throughout the event (Bateup, Booth, Shirtcliff, & Granger, 2002; Edwards & Kurlander, 2010; Edwards, Wetzel, & Wyner, 2006; Jiménez, Aguilar, & Alvero‐Cruz, 2012); although hormone changes appeared to be less clearly related to victory or loss (Bateup et al, 2002; Edwards et al, 2006; Jiménez et al, 2012). However, hormonal responses before, during, and following competition may vary by situation (eg, win vs loss) and individual motivation (eg, affiliation with others) (Casto & Edwards, 2016a; Oxford, Tiedtke, Ossmann, Özbe, & Schultheiss, 2017). Additionally, this research has largely been limited to high‐income populations and studies in lower‐income groups have documented different patterns, such as larger spikes in testosterone levels following physically demanding horticultural activities (ie, tree cutting) in comparison to a competitive event like soccer (Trumble et al, 2013).…”