Energy density, energy intake and weight status in a large free-living sample of Chinese adults: exploring the underlying roles of fat, protein, carbohydrate, fiber and water intakes

Abstract

Surveys were used to test for associations between energy density, energy intake and weight status, controlling for age, sex, height, activity level, smoking status, urban residence and income. Pearson correlation coef®cients were calculated to identify nutrient intake correlates of energy density. Replacing energy density with its nutrient correlates (3 day mean estimates of fat, protein, ®ber and water intakes) in the models predicting energy intake and overweight status, the independent effects of speci®c nutrients were investigated. Results: Energy density was positively and signi®cantly associated with energy intake and overweight status. Energy density was signi®cantly correlated with every nutrient examined, although the correlations were weak for most variables except water intake. Only water intake behaved consistently across analyses. It was negatively correlated with energy density, negatively, signi®cantly and independently associated with energy intake as well as overweight status. Despite positive associations with energy intake, fat and protein intake were not signi®cant predictors of overweight status. Fiber intake was strongly and positively associated with overweight status. Conclusions: Of the nutrients examined, only water intake appeared to explain the effects of energy density on energy intake and overweight status.

Diet quality and lifestyle associated with free selected low-energy density diets in a representative Spanish population

“…In the present study, energy density was inversely associated with intakes of carbohydrates and proteins, both 60.6 (57.6-63.6) 33.8 (30.7-36.8) 17.2 (14.1-20.2) 7.9 (4.9-11.0) o0.001 Cholesterol b 71.8 (68.2-75.3) 58.9 (55.3-62.4) 53.6 (50.1-57.2) 46.3 (42.7-49.9) o0.001 Fiber b 84.0 (80.8-87.3) 77.1 (73.9-80.4) 62.6 (59.4-65.9) 36.7 (33.5-40.0) o0.001 Folate b 72.4 (69.0-75.9) 59.0 (55.6-62.5) 45.0 (41.6-48.5) 28.3 (24.8-31.8 Diet quality of free selected low-energy density diets H Schröder et al expressed in a percentage of total energy intake. In contrast, a strong direct relationship was observed for energy density with energy consumption and total fat intake, which is in line with previous findings (Stookey, 2001;Crowe et al, 2004). In the present study, an increase of 10% in fat intakes was associated with a change of 0.98 kJ/g of energy density.…”

“…However, the study of dietary energy density in free-living persons is a new effort, and data on this issue are scarce. Observational studies generally found a direct association between energy intake and energy density (Marti-Henneberg et al, 1999;Cox and Mela, 2000;Stubbs et al, 2000;Stookey, 2001;Darmon et al, 2004). All these studies mainly focused on the association between energy density with energy and macronutrient intake and in some cases, additionally, with body mass index (BMI) (Marti-Henneberg et al, 1999;Cox and Mela, 2000;Stubbs et al, 2000;Cuco et al, 2001;Stookey, 2001;Darmon et al, 2004;Ledikwe et al, 2006b).…”

“…Observational studies generally found a direct association between energy intake and energy density (Marti-Henneberg et al, 1999;Cox and Mela, 2000;Stubbs et al, 2000;Stookey, 2001;Darmon et al, 2004). All these studies mainly focused on the association between energy density with energy and macronutrient intake and in some cases, additionally, with body mass index (BMI) (Marti-Henneberg et al, 1999;Cox and Mela, 2000;Stubbs et al, 2000;Cuco et al, 2001;Stookey, 2001;Darmon et al, 2004;Ledikwe et al, 2006b). Recently published data from two large-scale epidemiological studies indicate that high-energy density diets were a risk factor for higher BMI (Kant and Graubard, 2005;Howarth et al, 2006;Ledikwe et al, 2006a;Mendoza et al, 2007).…”

Energy density and 6-year anthropometric changes in a middle-aged adult cohort

“…Some of them found a positive relationship between ED and weight (10,14,15,19) , whereas some others found no significant association (13,20) or only in men (16) . Among the few longitudinal analysis available in free-living subjects, two were performed in women only (21,22) and one in both sexes (23) .…”

“…Some studies have reported positive associations between ED and EI (4,10,11) . In addition, there is a strong correlation between the ED of foods and their fat content (4,12) , which may also encourage weight gain.However, the results from cross-sectional epidemiological studies that have examined the relationships between dietary ED and body-weight status are not consistent (10,13 -20) .Some of them found a positive relationship between ED and weight (10,14,15,19) , whereas some others found no significant association (13,20) or only in men (16) . Among the few longitudinal analysis available in free-living subjects, two were performed in women only (21,22) and one in both sexes (23) .…”