Energy, nutrient and food content of snacks in French adults

Abstract

BackgroundSnacking raises concern since it may lead to an additional energy intake and poor nutrient quality. A snacking occasion can be defined as any eating occasion apart from main meals, regardless of the amount or type of foods consumed. We described the frequency of snacking occasions according to daily timing in French adults, and compared them between each other, and with the main meals, in terms of energy intake, energy and nutrient density, and food content.MethodsThis cross-sectional analysis included 104,265 adults from the NutriNet-Santé cohort. Food intake was estimated using 24-h records of weekdays. For each eating occasion, nutrient density and energy content and density were computed.ResultsAfter weighting, 47.6% of our sample were men and mean age was 45.6 (15.3). Overall, 68% of participants ate at least one snack during the reported record, mainly in the morning or afternoon. Overall snack had a lower nutrient density [22.8 (SD = 278.3)] than main meals [25.8 (36.9) to 30.0 (30.4)]; but higher energy density [222.2 (163.3) kcal/100 g] than meals [133.9 (57.3) to 175.9 (99.6) kcal/100 g]. Morning snack was the snacking occasion with the lowest energy density [211 kcal/100 g], the lowest energy intake [104.1 kcal] and the highest nutrient density [60.1]. Afternoon and evening snacks had the highest energy loads [192.4 kcal and 207.6 kcal], but low nutrient scores [16 and 13, respectively]. The main food groups contributing to energy intake from snacks were fatty-sweet and sugary foods, fruit, hot beverages, and bread.ConclusionsOur findings highlight the frequency of snacking and the varying nutritional quality of snacks over the day. The morning snack was shown to be healthier than afternoon and evening snacks.Trial registrationThis study was conducted according to guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki, and all procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the French Institute for Health and Medical Research (IRB Inserm No. 0000388FWA00005831) and the French Data Protection Authority (Commission Nationale Informatique et Libertés No. 908450 and No. 909216). Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants (Clinical Trial no. NCT03335644).Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12937-018-0336-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association of meal and snack patterns with micronutrient intakes among Greek children and adolescents: data from the Hellenic National Nutrition and Health Survey

“…Finally, a recent study compared the foods consumed by children during snacking between Australia, China, Mexico and the USA, and it was concluded that food items at snacks may differ by country (44) . In agreement with the above mentioned study, the contributions of fruits, dairy products, bread, sweetened beverages and fatty-sweet products to energy intake for overall snacking were different in French adults compared to US and Finish adults (45) .…”

“…Snacking incidence for all age groups has increased over the last years in Western countries and the present study confirms that this behaviour is also a common practice among Greek children and adolescents; indeed, 47.9% of the total sample population reported an eating scheme that consisted of the main meals and at least one snack. After assessing the overall diet quality with the use of MAR, there was no significant association of MAR with the examined eating schemes, and thus the number of snack episodes.…”

Optimism is associated with diet quality, food group consumption and snacking behavior in a general population

“…However, a low magnitude of differences in food intakes (apart from fruits and vegetables) was observed between the NutriNet-Santé study and a representative sample of the French population [73]. In regards to snacking measure, the nutritional quality of the snacks was not assessed in the present study, although previous data of the NutriNet-Santé cohort suggested a lower nutrient density and higher energy density of snacks compared with main meals [32]. Finally, optimism trait is regarded as a stable personality characteristic over extended periods [29].…”

“…In addition, to our knowledge, no study has so far examined the association between optimism and snacking behavior. Snacking, an aspect of dietary behavior which can be defined as eating occasions apart from main meals has been associated with lower nutrient density and higher energy density compared to main meals [32], and with both healthy and unhealthy food choices [33]. In addition, greater eating frequency may contribute to an unbalanced diet that could consequently lead to overweight or obesity [34].…”

A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study to Assess Effects of a Daily Pistachio (Pistacia Vera) Afternoon Snack on Next-Meal Energy Intake, Satiety, and Anthropometry in French Women

“…Therefore, the role of healthy nutritious food choices, controlled energy intake, and physical activity are at the core of nutrition policy messages emphasized by health agencies around the world. Given that snacking, which is defined as eating apart from main meals [1], can influence energy and nutrient intake, the choice of snack food may affect weight gain and diet quality [2]. In most countries, dietary guidelines mention nuts, including pistachios, as healthy foods, consumption of which is recommended [3,4].…”