“…The purposes or objectives of the preparatory unit are varied, ranging from the logistic to the pedagogical. Preparatory units are expected to specify the "nuts and bolts" of the field trip event by detailing trip itinerary (McLoughlin, 2004), reviewing safety and health parameters (Nabors, Edwards, & Murray, 2009), identifying behavioral expectations (Behrendt & Franklin, 2014), informing students of specific field trip learning objectives (Wong & Wong, 2008), making students aware of the conditions they are likely to encounter (Scarce, 1997;Hurley, 2006), and tying field trip objectives to broader curricular learning outcomes (McLoughlin, 2004). Cognitively, preparatory units should use a variety of concrete orientation and learning activities designed to build foundational knowledge about the field trip topic, to minimize novelty space, and to improve learning (Orion, 1993).…”