Enhancing Innovation and Underlying Neural Mechanisms Via Cognitive Training in Healthy Older Adults

Abstract

Non-invasive interventions, such as cognitive training (CT) and physical exercise, are gaining momentum as ways to augment both cognitive and brain function throughout life. One of the most fundamental yet little studied aspects of human cognition is innovative thinking, especially in older adults. In this study, we utilize a measure of innovative cognition that examines both the quantity and quality of abstracted interpretations. This randomized pilot trial in cognitively normal adults (56–75 years) compared the effect of cognitive reasoning training (SMART) on innovative cognition as measured by Multiple Interpretations Measure (MIM). We also examined brain changes in relation to MIM using two MRI-based measurement of arterial spin labeling (ASL) to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF) and functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI) to measure default mode and central executive network (CEN) synchrony at rest. Participants (N = 58) were randomized to the CT, physical exercise (physical training, PT) or control (CN) group where CT and PT groups received training for 3 h/week over 12 weeks. They were assessed at baseline-, mid- and post-training using innovative cognition and MRI measures. First, the CT group showed significant gains pre- to post-training on the innovation measure whereas the physical exercise and control groups failed to show significant gains. Next, the CT group showed increased CBF in medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) and bilateral posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), two nodes within the Default Mode Network (DMN) compared to physical exercise and control groups. Last, significant correlations were found between innovation performance and connectivity of two major networks: CEN (positive correlation) and DMN (negative correlation). These results support the view that both the CEN and DMN are important for enhancement of innovative cognition. We propose that neural mechanisms in healthy older adults can be modified through reasoning training to better subserve enhanced innovative cognition.

The Effects of Cognitive Training on Brain Network Activity and Connectivity in Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases: a Systematic Review

“…There is a significant body of literature on functional activity and connectivity changes after strategy-based CT that show similar findings as the results from this review. For instance, mnemonic strategy CTs increased activity of fronto-parietal and temporal regions in individuals suffering from MCI and increased functional connectivity within cognitive networks in healthy elderly (Chapman et al, 2015;Chapman, Spence, Aslan, & Keebler, 2017;Hampstead, Stringer, Stilla, Giddens, & Sathian, 2012;Hampstead, Stringer, Stilla, & Sathian, 2019;Simon et al, 2019). These studies were, however, beyond the scope of this review.…”

Aging brain: the effect of combined cognitive and physical training on cognition as compared to cognitive and physical training alone – a systematic review

“…All the other studies report effects on cognitive function, on brain structure/function, or on both. In addition, in seven studies listed in Table 6 (four using MRI, 66 , 67 , 78 , 79 one using positron emission tomography, 77 one using electroencephalogram, 79 and one examining serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF] 69 ) that included groups undergoing single physical training (not combined with other kinds of training), positive effects of physical training on cognition and on brain structure or function were reported. Concerning cognition, improvements were especially observed for short-term 59 , 60 and working memory, 53 long-term immediate and delayed memory, 60 attention, 61 , 62 and executive functions.…”

“…Concerning cognition, improvements were especially observed for short-term 59 , 60 and working memory, 53 long-term immediate and delayed memory, 60 attention, 61 , 62 and executive functions. 63 On the brain level: 1) structural changes have been found in both white 53 , 59 and gray matter, 64 , 65 and 2) functional changes have been observed at the level of functional connectivity, 53 , 59 CBF, 60 , 66 , 67 and task-related pattern of blood oxygen level dependent response. 17 , 68 Some authors 61 suggested that the thickening of the gray matter might be due to an increase in the level of BDNF.…”

“…In addition, two studies have compared combined training with a control group only, 78 , 79 and three studies have compared single physical training with single cognitive training and a control group. 66 , 67 , 69 …”

Use of a randomized clinical trial design to study cognitive rehabilitation approaches to enhance warfighter performance

“…Particularly, SMART focuses on many of the cognitive domains that are key to cognitive readiness. In multiple clinical trials, SMART has shown to improve mental agility, strategic learning, problem solving, focus, and psychological well-being [ [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] ]. The SMART protocol has been shown to be superior to cognitive training of the same duration and dose of treatment [ 16 , 18 ].…”