Entomopathogenic Nematodes (EPNs): A Green Strategy for Management of Insect-Pests of Crops

Natural Warriors against Stored-Grain Pests: The Joint Action of Beauveria bassiana and Steinernema carpocapsae

“…Another biological control agent, entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs), mainly belonging to Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp., have been proven highly effective against a variety of insect pests [ 36 , 37 ]. The parasitic life cycle of nematodes begins with the infestation of the insect host by the non-feeding third-stage infective juveniles (IJs), which enter through natural body openings such as the spiracles, anus, mouth, or the cuticle [ 36 , 37 , 38 ].…”

“…and Heterorhabditis spp., have been proven highly effective against a variety of insect pests [ 36 , 37 ]. The parasitic life cycle of nematodes begins with the infestation of the insect host by the non-feeding third-stage infective juveniles (IJs), which enter through natural body openings such as the spiracles, anus, mouth, or the cuticle [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. The genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis carry symbiotic bacteria, i.e., Xenorhabdus spp.…”

“…The genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis carry symbiotic bacteria, i.e., Xenorhabdus spp. and Photorhabdus spp., respectively [ 37 , 39 , 40 ]. Once inside the host, IJs penetrate the layer of intestinal or tracheal epithelial cells to access the hemocoel, where they release symbiotic bacteria.…”

“…Once inside the host, IJs penetrate the layer of intestinal or tracheal epithelial cells to access the hemocoel, where they release symbiotic bacteria. The released bacteria rapidly multiply, causing septicemia and toxemia, leading to the host’s demise within 24–48 h. Symbiotic bacteria also serve as a food source for the EPNs, aiding in their maturation into adults [ 36 , 37 , 41 , 42 ]. Within the host cadaver, two to three generations of nematodes are typically completed [ 37 , 41 ].…”

“…The released bacteria rapidly multiply, causing septicemia and toxemia, leading to the host’s demise within 24–48 h. Symbiotic bacteria also serve as a food source for the EPNs, aiding in their maturation into adults [ 36 , 37 , 41 , 42 ]. Within the host cadaver, two to three generations of nematodes are typically completed [ 37 , 41 ]. Upon exhaustion of food reserves, the nematode offspring is released, developing into IJs that are able to survive in the environment, seeking out new hosts [ 36 , 37 , 41 ].…”