Environmental and Archaeobotanical Studies in Etruscan Archaeology: An Epistemological Overview and Future Considerations of Human–Plant Relationships

Abstract

This article provides an overview of the epistemological traditions that have downplayed the importance of environmental studies and archaeobotanical analysis in Etruscan archaeology. In particular, we survey and highlight the history of archaeobotanical studies in Etruscan archaeology in the twentieth century to understand better the current deficit of archaeobotanical knowledge in the twenty-first century. While plants provided the majority of calories for prehistoric diets, little has been written about the direct archaeological evidence for plant material at Etruscan sites. Archaeobotanical results from all excavations associated with ancient Etruria are synthesized, prior methodologies are discussed, and best practices are offered for current and future excavations. This article also provides an overview of the wider cultural questions related to landscape, identity, and land management that still remain to be investigated.

Diets, stress, and disease in the Etruscan society: Isotope analysis and infantile skeletal palaeopathology from Pontecagnano (Campania, southern Italy, 730–580 BCE)

“…Archaeobotanical findings generally suffered from an artificial lack due to methodological issues in recovering small size of millet seeds rather than a real absence of this cereal in the Etruscan contexts (e.g. [ 19 , 206 ]).…”

“…In a period of agricultural intensification, such as during the Etruscan Orientalizing period (730-580 BCE), a reliance on staple crops is not surprising. According to archaeobotanical evidence [19], a wide range of C 3 crops (e.g., wheat, barley, oat, spelt) and pulses were consumed in the form of flatbreads, pulses, or soups (see Introduction) [20][21][22]. The restricted consumption of animal protein in the diet of Chiancone II individuals (Fig 2 ), could be interpreted in relation to socioeconomic dynamics of the Etruscan Orientalizing period.…”

“…aDNA analysis of Etruscan individuals provides insights into the genetic makeup and mobility of this civilization (e.g., [10][11][12][13][14]). As for the Etruscan diet, a large body of information is based on archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological research that has only recently started to provide insights into the food plants, animal husbandry strategies and fishing used by the Etruscans [15][16][17][18][19]. For example, archaeobotanical findings have allowed us to ascertain that Etruscan diet was based on diversified staple crops, particularly emmer (Triticum dicoccum), bread/naked wheat (Triticum durum, Triticum aestivum or Siligo), barley (Hordeum vulgare), rye (Secale sp.)…”

Infantile scurvy as a consequence of agricultural intensification in the 1st millennium BCE Etruria Campana

“…To date, knowledge about Etruscan life, socio-economic and political aspects mainly derive from excavations of cities, sanctuaries, necropolises, and the analysis of material culture 2 . Archaeobotany 3 and zooarchaeology 4 have only recently begun to provide information on consumable plants contributing to Etruscan diet and animal husbandry strategies. It is inferred from secondary sources that Etruscan diets relied on domesticated cereals and had poor dietary diversity 5 .…”