Environmental assessment of the near-net-shape electrochemical metallisation process and the Kroll-electron beam melting process for titanium manufacture

Dolganov, Aleksei; Bishop, Matthew; Tomatis, Marco; Hu, Di

doi:10.1039/c9gc04036f

Cited by 10 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 52 publications

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“…A recent study on the use of shaped oxide via the 'Near-net-shape Electrochemical Metallisation (NEM) process' attempted to quantify the environmental impacts of components produced using this method, compared to electron beam melting of Kroll derived, gas atomised powders. It found that the NEM process dramatically reduced the overall environmental impact by about 68% in comparison [22]. Overall, the continued research and improvement of Ti extraction via the FFC-Cambridge process, along with supporting evidence of the potential advantages, demonstrates the potential for further exploitation of this technology in the future.…”

Section: Ti Extraction Via the Ffc-cambridge Processmentioning

confidence: 79%

“…Until recently, most research has used pigment grade rutile (TiO 2 ) to produce Ti via the FFC-Cambridge process; but significant cost reduction can be achieved using lower purity precursor materials instead [22,23]. One example is synthetic rutile (SR), which contains around 90-95% TiO 2 , and is usually further processed into TiCl 4 for use in conventional Kroll extraction [24].…”

Section: Ti Extraction Via the Ffc-cambridge Processmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Direct electrochemical production of pseudo-binary Ti–Fe alloys from mixtures of synthetic rutile and iron(III) oxide

Graham

Benson²,

Jackson

2020

J Mater Sci

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Combining the FFC-Cambridge process with field-assisted sintering technology (FAST) allows for the realisation of an alternative, entirely solid-state, production route for a wide range of metals and alloys. For titanium, this could provide a route to produce alloys at a lower cost compared to the conventional Kroll-based route. Use of synthetic rutile instead of high purity TiO2 offers further potential cost savings, with previous studies reporting on the reduction of this feedstock via the FFC-Cambridge process. In this study, mixtures of synthetic rutile and iron oxide (Fe2O3) powders were co-reduced using the FFC-Cambridge process, directly producing titanium alloy powders. The powders were subsequently consolidated using FAST to generate homogeneous, pseudo-binary Ti–Fe alloys containing up to 9 wt.% Fe. The oxide mixture, reduced powders and bulk alloys were fully characterised to determine the microstructure and chemistry evolution during processing. Increasing Fe content led to greater β phase stabilisation but no TiFe intermetallic phase was observed in any of the consolidated alloys. Microhardness testing was performed for preliminary assessment of mechanical properties, with values between 330–400 Hv. Maximum hardness was measured in the alloy containing 5.15 wt.% Fe, thought due to the strengthening effect of fine α phase precipitation within the β grains. At higher Fe contents, there was sufficient β stabilisation to prevent α phase transformation on cooling, leading to a reduction in hardness despite a general increase from solid solution strengthening.

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Section: Ti Extraction Via the Ffc-cambridge Processmentioning

confidence: 79%

Section: Ti Extraction Via the Ffc-cambridge Processmentioning

confidence: 99%

Direct electrochemical production of pseudo-binary Ti–Fe alloys from mixtures of synthetic rutile and iron(III) oxide

Graham

Benson²,

Jackson

2020

J Mater Sci

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“…The recent developments in DIW of titanium dioxide have focused on the production of scaffolds or biomedical implants and the manufacture of dense ceramic components [19,20]. It is important to highlight that such scaffolds are required to possess a certain porosity to allow for body tissue to grow through it, resulting in improved biocompatibility [17,21]. In addition, mechanical properties of such scaffolds are required to be close to that of a human bone, to reduce stress shielding and minimise bone resorption [20].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Another potential application of DIW of titanium dioxide is the recently proposed manufacturing of titanium components via the Near-net-shape Electrochemical Metallisation (NEM) Process [21]. This is an indirect titanium AM process where the ceramic green body (i.e., metal oxide or its mixtures) is 3D printed first and then in situ metallised to its metal or alloy counterpart via the solid-state deoxidation process in a molten salt (i.e.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Rheological study and printability investigation of titania inks for Direct Ink Writing process

Dolganov

Bishop

2021

Ceramics International

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Titanium dioxide is widely used in numerous industries and with the newly developed titanium manufacturing technic, referred to as the Near-net-shape Electrochemical Metallisation (NEM) Process, the rapid and precise production of titanium dioxide components is highly sought-after. This manuscript presents the rheological investigation and extrudability tests of titania inks, to 2 establish the improved production of titanium dioxide components via Direct Ink Writing. The extrudability tests indicated that despite an unfavourable increase in viscosity during the high shear rates (dilatancy peaks), the best-performing ink had a weight ratio of 1:0.8:0.1 TiO2:H2O:PEG, and the dilatancy peaks were smoothed out with the addition of 0.1 weight ratio of oleic acid to the ink, dramatically improving the quality of the product. To further improve the green bodies a new printing approach was also introduced, removing the necessity for specialised printing bed, by printing a removable support into the green body and allowing for drying without any cracks and warping.

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“…1) Its manufacturing costs have been significantly decreased, eventually surpassing the compatible method, the Hunter process. 2) However, the Kroll process is still regarded as an expensive and environmentally unfriendly method, 3) and the industrial applications of Ti are still restricted to a few high-end products. Hence Kroll, the inventor of Kroll process, expected that it will be replaced by another method.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Recent Studies on Titanium Refining: 2017–2020

2021

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Titanium oxide can be converted directly to its metallic state. This extraordinary technology is realized in a CaCl 2 -based molten salt that can extract oxygen ions from the cathode. Several discussions have been exchanged in the field of electrochemistry and metallurgy in the last two decades. Recent papers on titanium refining are overviewed by selecting popular papers, especially those published in this journal, Materials Transactions. Basic and scientific studies on titanium and its refining are briefly analyzed, and some practical applications are introduced in related oxide reductions and the corresponding molten salts.

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Environmental assessment of the near-net-shape electrochemical metallisation process and the Kroll-electron beam melting process for titanium manufacture

Abstract: A comparative environmental assessment of a novel additive manufacturing technique against the established conventional route for titanium manufacture.

Cited by 10 publications

References 52 publications

Direct electrochemical production of pseudo-binary Ti–Fe alloys from mixtures of synthetic rutile and iron(III) oxide

Direct electrochemical production of pseudo-binary Ti–Fe alloys from mixtures of synthetic rutile and iron(III) oxide

Rheological study and printability investigation of titania inks for Direct Ink Writing process

Recent Studies on Titanium Refining: 2017–2020

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