Environmental Reviews and Case Studies: Accounting for Diversity in Environmental Justice Screening Tools: Toward Multiple Indices of Disproportionate Impact

Defining Environmental Justice Communities for Regulatory Enforcement: Implications from a Block‐Group‐Level Analysis of New York State

“…Despite the possible benefits of defining vulnerable communities argued by both the external and internal auditors, the EPA has been concerned about the efficacy of an approach that is exclusively based on demographic and socioeconomic factors, arguing that such a practice may compromise the flexibility and effectiveness of policy implementation, which is characterized by “demographic differences, and the unique, fact specific circumstances in which each case arises” (EPA, 2004, p. 40). Some scholars share similar concerns about using limited dimensions of disparate impacts to diagnose EJ problems (Holifield, ).…”

“…In the meantime, for internal program management, the Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance started drafting the Environmental Justice Strategic Enforcement Assessment Tool (EJSEAT) in the mid‐2000s (Case, ; Hill, ). The EJSEAT scored and ranked census tracts in terms of EJ vulnerability based on the analysis of 18 indicators from four categories: environmental, human health, compliance, and social/demographic (Holifield, , p. 82). Plan EJ 2014, which is the EPA's most comprehensive and ambitious strategic plan and operational program promoting EJ, stipulates four tool development areas covering science, law, information, and resources.…”

Coopted environmental justice? Activists’ roles in shaping EJ policy implementation

“…Agencies' EJ efforts to date appear to coopt the concept of EJ, disappointing movement members and academic supporters (Bullard et al 2007;Eady 2003;Goode and Keiner 2003;Gordon and Harley 2005;Harrison 2015;Holifield 2004Holifield , 2012Holifield , 2014Lewis and Bennett 2013;Lewis and Owley 2015;Liévanos 2012;Liévanos, London, and Sze 2011;London, Sze, and Liévanos 2008;Payne-Sturges et al 2012;Scandrett 2007;Shilling, London, and Liévanos 2009;Targ 2005;Vajjhala 2010;Walker 2010). While scholars attribute these outcomes to numerous factors, many highlight cooptation by countermovement actors in the state and industry, who reframe 'EJ' to neuter EJ policy design and implementation (e.g., Eady 2003;Holifield 2012;Liévanos 2012;Sandweiss 1998).…”

“…However, observers have found that agency EJ efforts deviate markedly from core movement priorities, including doing little to reduce hazards in poor communities and communities of color or redistribute power over decisionmaking (Bullard et al 2007;Eady 2003;Goode and Keiner 2003;Gordon and Harley 2005;Holifield 2004Holifield , 2012Holifield , 2014Lewis and Bennett 2013;Lewis and Owley 2015;Liévanos 2012;Liévanos, London, and Sze 2011;London, Sze, and Liévanos 2008;Payne-Sturges et al 2012;Scandrett 2007;Shilling, London, and Liévanos 2009;Targ 2005;Vajjhala 2010;Walker 2010). Scholars point to political opportunity structures (Meyer 2004) thwarting EJ policy implementation efforts: agency leaders hostile to EJ principles, insufficient funding, industry attack, conflict between EJ policy and agency mission, and the ways agency representatives interpret EJ (Harrison 2015;Holifield 2004Holifield , 2012Holifield , 2014Lewis and Bennett 2013;Liévanos 2012;Liévanos, London, and Sze 2011;London, Sze, and Liévanos 2008;Payne-Sturges et al 2012;Scandrett 2007;Shilling, London, and Liévanos 2009).…”

“…Scholars point to political opportunity structures (Meyer 2004) thwarting EJ policy implementation efforts: agency leaders hostile to EJ principles, insufficient funding, industry attack, conflict between EJ policy and agency mission, and the ways agency representatives interpret EJ (Harrison 2015;Holifield 2004Holifield , 2012Holifield , 2014Lewis and Bennett 2013;Liévanos 2012;Liévanos, London, and Sze 2011;London, Sze, and Liévanos 2008;Payne-Sturges et al 2012;Scandrett 2007;Shilling, London, and Liévanos 2009).…”