Epidemiology of Severe Acute Respiratory Illness and Risk Factors for Influenza Infection and Clinical Severity among Adults in Malawi, 2011–2013

Abstract

Abstract.Data on the epidemiology of severe acute respiratory illness (SARI) in adults from low-income, high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence African settings are scarce. We conducted adult SARI surveillance in Blantyre, Malawi. From January 2011 to December 2013, individuals aged ≥ 15 years with SARI (both inpatients and outpatients) were enrolled at a large teaching hospital in Blantyre, Malawi. Nasopharyngeal aspirates were tested for influenza and other respiratory viruses by polymerase chain reaction. We estimated hospital-attended influenza-positive SARI incidence rates and assessed factors associated with influenza positivity and clinical severity (Modified Early Warning Score > 4). We enrolled 1,126 SARI cases; 163 (14.5%) were positive for influenza. Human immunodeficiency virus prevalence was 50.3%. Annual incidence of hospital-attended influenza-associated SARI was 9.7–16.8 cases per 100,000 population. Human immunodeficiency virus was associated with a 5-fold greater incidence (incidence rate ratio 4.91, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.83–6.32). On multivariable analysis, female gender, as well as recruitment in hot, rainy season (December to March; adjusted odds ratios (aOR): 2.82, 95% CI: 1.57–5.06) and cool, dry season (April to August; aOR: 2.47, 95% CI: 1.35–4.15), was associated with influenza positivity, whereas influenza-positive patients were less likely to be HIV-infected (aOR: 0.59, 95% CI: 0.43–0.80) or have viral coinfection (aOR: 0.51, 95% CI: 0.36–0.73). Human immunodeficiency virus infection (aOR: 1.86; 95% CI: 1.35–2.56) and recruitment in hot, rainy season (aOR: 4.98, 95% CI: 3.17–7.81) were independently associated with clinical severity. In this high HIV prevalence population, influenza was associated with nearly 15% of hospital-attended SARI. Human immunodeficiency virus infection is an important risk factor for clinical severity in all-cause and influenza-associated SARI. Expanded access to HIV testing and antiretroviral treatment, as well as targeted influenza vaccination, may reduce the burden of SARI in Malawi and other high HIV prevalence settings.

Serologic evidence of seasonal influenza A and B in HIV patients on combined antiretroviral therapy in Lagos, Nigeria

“…Based on gender, a higher 65.2% seroprevalence was detected among women compared to 24.6% among men in our study, which is consistent with findings from Malawi 27 that reported higher seroprevalence among women. In contrast, a United States study recorded a higher seroprevalence in men than in women.…”

Serologic evidence of seasonal influenza A and B viruses in HIV patients on combined antiretroviral therapy in Lagos, Nigeria

“…Based on gender, a higher 65.2 % seroprevalence was detected among females compared to the males with 24.6 %, a finding that is consistent with that of Ho, Mallewa (29) that reported higher seroprevalence among the females. On the contrary, Patel, Bush (9) recorded a higher seroprevalence in males than the females.…”

The epidemiology of seasonal influenza after the 2009 influenza pandemic in Africa: a systematic review

“…These data covered aspects of influenza detection and seasonality. 21 countries reported influenza surveillance data among inpatients with severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) and outpatients with influenza-like-illness (ILI) 6 , 13 , 19 , 26 , 27 , 30 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 37 , 40 , 45 , 46 , 51 , 55 , 61 , 64 , 69 , 70 , 72 ; whereas Gabon, Togo, Burkina Faso, Central Africa Republic and Uganda reported influenza surveillance data among outpatients with ILI only 14 , 17 , 18 , 60 , 73 , 154 .…”

“…These data covered aspects of influenza detection and seasonality. 21 countries reported influenza surveillance data among inpatients with severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) and outpatients with influenza-like-illness (ILI) 6,13,19,26,27,30,32,33,36,37,40,45,46,51,55,61,64,69,70,72 ; whereas Gabon, Togo, Burkina Faso, Central Africa Republic and Uganda reported influenza surveillance data among outpatients with ILI only 14,17,18,60,73,154 . Globally, the case definition used in most surveillance systems was consistent with that of WHO for influenza-like illness (defined as an acute respiratory infection with measured fever of ≥ 38°C, and cough, with onset within the last 7 or 10 days), or severe acute respiratory infection (defined as an acute respiratory infection with history of fever or measured fever of ≥ 38°C, and cough, with onset within the last 7 or 10 days, and requiring hospitalization) 18,26,28,30,32,49 .…”