Equine influenza virus infections: An update

Abstract

Equine influenza is one of the most economically important contagious respiratory diseases of horses. In this paper the current state of knowledge of equine influenza virus and the most important aspects of these virus infections, e.g. epidemiology, clinical aspects, pathogenesis and pathology, immunity, diagnosis, treatment, management and vaccination, are reviewed with an emphasis on epidemiology, diagnosis and vaccinology. Many questions have remained and with the advent of improved technology new questions have arisen. Consequently, research priorities should be set in an attempt to answer them. Therefore, this review ends with some personal recommendations for important priorities for future research.

Antibody Responses Induced by Japanese Whole inactivated Vaccines against Equine Influenza Virus (H3N8) Belonging to Florida Sublineage Clade2

“…Although viruses with two subtypes, H7N7 and H3N8, have been identified, the H7N7 virus has not been isolated from horses since 1979 [21]. It is currently widely accepted that the H7N7 virus may be extinct [19]. On the other hand, the H3N8 virus is still circulating among horses worldwide [5,19].…”

“…It is currently widely accepted that the H7N7 virus may be extinct [19]. On the other hand, the H3N8 virus is still circulating among horses worldwide [5,19].…”

Antibody response to Influenza booster vaccination in Franches‐Montagnes stallions supplemented with Equi‐Strath®: a randomized trial

“…Successful equine influenza vaccination in horses stimulates an immune response, resulting in an increase of the antigen‐specific antibody production (Van Maanen & Cullinane 2002). The extent of the immune response, however, may be affected by several factors.…”

Isolation, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the hemagglutinin, neuraminidase and nucleoprotein genes of the Chilean equine influenza virus subtypes H7N7 and H3N8

“…Outbreaks of the disease have occurred in vaccinated horses, although they have presented milder symptoms as compared with non-vaccinated animals. Vaccine failure is primarily attributed to viral antigenic changes [34], and new approaches to vaccination are therefore needed.…”