Esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) to biodiesel using Bi-functional catalyst synthesized from waste angel wing shell (Cyrtopleura costata)

Synthesis, characterization, and optimization of Schizochytrium biodiesel production using Na+‐doped nanohydroxyapatite

“…Phases of the catalyst were identified using Xpert HighScore search‐matching software. Average crystalline size ( D ) was determined using Debye‐Scherrer equation, represented in Equation K = 0.9 crystalline shape factor, λ is the wavelength of the beam, β is the full width at half maximum, and θ is the Bragg's angle in degrees.…”

“…Unfortunately, a large volume of solid waste is disposed into the environment which results in environmental pollution, could be recycled, and used for catalyst synthesis. Many researchers have successfully utilized the heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production which is derived from animal bone, chicken bone, bovine bone, fish bone, wing shell, sheep, rice husk, and bamboo charcoal . Heterogeneous catalysts have shown good stability and performance, but it has some drawbacks such as sensitivity to moisture, dissolution in alcohol, and slow reaction rate because of less diffusion among the oil, methanol, and catalyst .…”

“…Many researchers have successfully utilized the heterogeneous catalyst in biodiesel production which is derived from animal bone, chicken bone, bovine bone, fish bone, wing shell, sheep, rice husk, and bamboo charcoal. [18][19][20][21][22] Heterogeneous catalysts have shown good stability and performance, but it has some drawbacks such as sensitivity to moisture, dissolution in alcohol, and slow reaction rate because of less diffusion among the oil, methanol, and catalyst. [23][24][25] To increase the reactivity, structural supporters or alkali earth metals such as sodium or potassium are supported in hydroxyapatite (HAP) to facilitate more active pores and large surface area and to react with large triacyl glyceride molecules.…”

Structural/texture evolution of CaO/MCM‐41 nanocatalyst by doping various amounts of cerium for active and stable catalyst: Biodiesel production from waste vegetable cooking oil

“…So, in some cases, these catalysts are used for preparing the poor quality oil before using basic catalysts . Another efficient way of taking the advantages of both acidic and basic catalysts is producing the heterogeneous bifunctional catalysts …”

“…21 Another efficient way of taking the advantages of both acidic and basic catalysts is producing the heterogeneous bifunctional catalysts. 20,22 There are many challenges in designing the heterogeneous biodiesel catalysts such as diffusion resistance of great triglyceride molecules, specific surface area (SSA), and catalyst deactivation. [23][24][25] Some of these problems could be solved by employing an appropriate catalytic support.…”