“…This technique was applied to study concrete for decades (Whittington, McCarter, & Forde, 1981); moreover, it is believed that the electrical resistivity of concrete is related to the pore characteristics, pore solution composition, saturation degree, and temperature (Weiss, Snyder, Bullard, & Bentz, 2012). Since ice formation is essential for understanding the frost damage of concrete (Gong, Wang, Zhang, & Ueda, 2015), electrical measurements was applied to estimate the ice content below freezing point (Cai & Liu, 1998;Wang, Gong, Zhang, & Ueda, 2016b). In addition, Wang, Zeng, Wang, Yao, and Li (2014) attempted to use the maximum electrical resistivity to evaluate the frost damage of cement paste immersed to water with FTCs.…”