Interactions
between effects generated by cold atmospheric-pressure
plasmas and water have been widely investigated for water purification,
chemical and nanomaterial synthesis, and, more recently, medicine
and biotechnology. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) play
critical roles in transferring the reactivity from gas plasmas to
solutions to induce specific biochemical responses in living targets,
e.g., pathogen inactivation and biofilm removal. While this approach
works well in a single-organism system at a laboratory scale, integration
of plasma-enabled biofilm removal into complex real-life systems,
e.g., large aquaculture tanks, is far from trivial. This is because
it is difficult to deliver sufficient concentrations of the right
kind of species to biofilm-covered surfaces while carefully maintaining
a suitable physiochemical environment that is healthy for its inhabitants,
e.g., fish. In this work, we show that underwater microplasma bubbles
(generated by a microplasma-bubble reactor that forms a dielectric
barrier discharge at the gas–liquid interface with the applied
voltage of 4.0 kV) act as transport vehicles to efficiently deliver
reactive plasma species to the target biofilm sites on artificial
and living surfaces while keeping healthy water conditions in a multispecies
system. The as-generated air microplasma bubbles and plasma-activated
water (PAW) both can effectively reduce the existing pathogenic biofilm
load by ∼83 and 60%, respectively, after 15 min of discharge
at 40 W and prevent any new biofilm from forming. The generation of
underwater microplasma bubbles in a custom-made fish tank for less
than a minute per day (20 s per time, twice daily) can introduce sufficient
quantities of RONS into PAW to reduce the biofilm-infected area by
∼80–90% and improve the health status of Cichlasoma synspilum × Cichlasoma
citrinellum blood parrot cichlid fish. Species generated
include hydrogen peroxide, ozone, nitrite, nitrate, and nitric oxide.
Using mimicked chemical solutions, we show that the plasma-induced
nitric oxide acts as a critical bioactive species that triggers the
release of cells from the biofilm and their inactivation.