emerging. 6 Working from this premise, Leonore O'Boyle assumes that these 'natural histories' are likely to repeat themselves within different countries as they modernize. 7 Geoffrey Millerson's definition captures the core of 'professional work' as: 'a service provided with a variety of specialized skills on the bases of theoretical or scientific knowledge, given by the individual professional according to a given practice controlled by the professional organization'. 8 Professionalization, however, cannot be depicted only as a linear or unbroken progress of events repeating itself from one country to another because the very idea of a separate journalistic profession is likely to be challenged differently from one political system to another. Journalism research has challenged almost all elements of the definition of a 'classical profession'. 9 Journalists can hardly practice their occupation as 'individual professionals' (even when working as freelancers), but they are always related to institutional settings-to news organizations. 10 The norms and standards of journalistic work differ largely across countries and also among news organizations. For example, Plaisance et al. confirm that ideological, cultural and societal factors are critical, and influence how 'journalists around the globe approach ethical dilemmas'. 11 Furthermore, while the codes of ethics are mostly addressed to journalists as individuals, social and political institutions 6 See for example Johnson ([1972] 1979) Professions and Power.