“…Each formative assessment strategy has its strengths and may be effective in various classroom settings. In the Indonesian context, observations and conversations are particularly powerful in Indonesian classrooms as they allow teachers to construct personal connections with students, understand their cultural backgrounds, and offer-centred assistance (Zulfikar, 2021;Trotter, 2006). Questioning techniques encourage participation from all students, together with people who can be extra reserved in expressing their thoughts (Brookfield & Preskill, 2012).…”