Evaluation of the Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Relationship with Bone Health among Postmenopausal Women in Spain

Abstract

Background: Heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury, are absorbed through contaminated food sources and water. Few studies have investigated the extent to which dietary heavy metals are associated with low bone mineral density. Aims: We aimed to characterize the dietary intake of the heavy metals lead, cadmium and mercury among healthy, non-smoking postmenopausal women in Spain. Furthermore, we sought to establish a putative relationship between bone health and the intake of these heavy metals in this population. Study Design: The daily intake of the heavy metals considered for the different food groups was calculated by accounting for food content and consumption in 281 postmenopausal women. Bone measurements were performed using a Quantitative Bone Ultrasound (QUS), a Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA) and a Peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (pQCT). Results: The average estimated dietary cadmium exposure among the 281 women studied was 29.87 μg/day (20.41–41.04) and 3.03 μg/kg body weight (b.w.; 2.17–4.40). Dietary lead exposure was 46.24 μg/day (38.11–54.77) and 4.87 μg/kg b.w. (4.00–6.14). The estimated dietary mercury exposure was 11.64 μg/day and 1.19 μg/kg b.w. (0.82–1.76). Participants were classified according to their heavy metal intake (above or below the respective medians). After further adjustment for potential confounding factors, no significant differences were found in all the measured parameters (p > 0.05). Conclusions: We did not find associations between bone health and the dietary intake of three heavy metals in postmenopausal women. Dietary intake of the measured heavy metals were within the recommended values.

Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women

“…The dietary exposures for cadmium (2.6 μg/day), mercury (10 μg/day), and lead (8.4 μg/day) in this region were below the values observed in our sample. Regardless, our results are consistent with those from preceding investigations in Spain, indicating that dietary exposures of cadmium, lead and mercury in the Spanish diet are often within the recommendations [ 10 , 39 , 54 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. One study estimated the dietary intake of the considered heavy metals [ 63 ] in our region and determined that our area revealed one of the lowest dietary exposures to cadmium and the highest dietary exposure of mercury in Spain; we admit that it is possible that the dietary patterns of our region have changed since then, and changes in the dietary exposures of cadmium, lead and mercury in our region might arise.…”

“…We observed that our participants had figures well below the PTWI for lead. Our findings (4.82 μg/kg b.w./w) are consistent with those from previous studies in Spain [ 39 , 54 , 55 ] that assessed the dietary exposure of heavy metals. The results achieved, in regard to the average dietary exposure of lead in those studies, ranged from 4 μg/kg b.w./w to 56 μg/kg b.w./w between the zones considered.…”

“…Women enrolled in this study completed a 131-item FFQ. This FFQ was previously validated and involves a 24-h recall performed over seven days [ 31 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. A database involving food cadmium, lead and mercury was constructed, as previously reported [ 39 ].…”

“…This FFQ was previously validated and involves a 24-h recall performed over seven days [ 31 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. A database involving food cadmium, lead and mercury was constructed, as previously reported [ 39 ]. Using the FFQ, we also estimated the dietary intakes of iron, zinc, iodine, magnesium, copper, selenium, calcium and vitamin D from the Spanish Food Composition database [ 40 ].…”

Dietary Cadmium Intake and Its Effects on Kidneys

“…In a U.S. study, FFQ estimated a mean dietary Cd intake of 10.4 μg/day (range: 1.74–31.6 μg/day) in women who participated in the Women’s Health Initiative [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. In Spain, the mean for dietary intake derived from FFQ was 29.87 μg/day (range: 20.41–41.04 μg/day) for postmenopausal women and 25.29 μg/day (range: 18.62–35 μg/day) for premenopausal women [ 19 , 20 ]. In Japan, the mean Cd intake that was estimated by the FFQ was 26.4 μg/day in one study [ 21 ].…”