Evaluation of the Removal of Selected Phthalic Acid Esters (PAEs) in Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants Supported by Constructed Wetlands

Abstract

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) have a negative impact on living organisms in the environment, therefore, are among the group of Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (ECDs). Unfortunately, conventional methods used in municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) are not designed to eliminate PAEs. For this reason, the development of cheap and simple but very effective techniques for the removal of such residues from wastewater is crucial. The main aim of this study was the evaluation of the removal of six selected PAEs: diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-octyl phthalate (DOP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dimethyl phthalate (DMP), in real MWWTPs supported by constructed wetlands (MWWTP–CW system). For the first time, the possibility of using three new plants for this purpose, Cyperus papyrus (papyrus), Lysimachia nemorum (yellow pimpernel) and Euonymus europaeus (European spindle), has been presented. For determining the target PAEs in wastewater samples, a method of SPE (Solid-Phase Extraction)–GC–MS(SIM) was developed and validated, and for plant materials, a method of UAE (Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction)–SPE–GC–MS(SIM) was proposed. The obtained data showed that the application of the MWWTP–CW system allows a significant increase in the removal of DEP, DBP, BBP and DEHP from the wastewater stream. Euonymus europaeus was the most effective among the tested plant species for the uptake of analytes (8938 ng × g−1 dry weight), thus, this plant was found to be optimal for supporting conventional MWWTPs.

Point-of-Use SERS Approach for Efficient Determination and Removal of Phthalic Acid Esters Based on a Metal–Organic Framework-Coated Melamine Sponge

“…A comparison of different methods for detecting or removing PAEs in water ,,− is shown in Table S1. Compared to traditional techniques, this approach is operationally simple, cost-effective, and easy to use, which are crucial in POU applications.…”

Air–Sea Exchange and Atmospheric Deposition of Phthalate Esters in the South China Sea

“…Continuous emissions of PAEs have led to their ubiquitous distribution and abundance in the global environment. For example, PAEs have been determined in wastewater, river water, seawater, air, sediment, and fish. − Both atmospheric and aquatic transport pathways play an important role in the presence of PAEs in the marine environment. − When PAEs enter the marine environment, they can redistribute in different environmental compartments and exchange, crossing the interface between gas/particle, air/water, water/sediment, and water/organism. − Furthermore, it has been proven that sediments are important sinks and sources for PAE distribution and bioaccumulation in the marine environment. − Besides, photo- and biological degradation may interfere with their levels in the air and aquatic environments. , However, the transformed products of PAEs can be more toxic than their parent substances . Consequently, air–sea exchange processes may significantly interfere with the biogeochemical cycle of PAEs in the marine environment …”

“… 22 − 24 Besides, photo- and biological degradation may interfere with their levels in the air and aquatic environments. 25 , 26 However, the transformed products of PAEs can be more toxic than their parent substances. 27 Consequently, air–sea exchange processes may significantly interfere with the biogeochemical cycle of PAEs in the marine environment.…”