Mussels of the genus Mytilus have been used to assess the circumglacial phylogeography of the intertidal zone. These mussels are representative components of the intertidal zone and have rapidly evolving mitochondrial DNA, suitable for high resolution phylogeographic analyses. In Europe, the three Mytilus species currently share mitochondrial haplotypes, owing to the cases of extensive genetic introgression. Genetic diversity of Mytilus edulis, Mytilus trossulus and Mytilus galloprovincialis was studied using a 900-bp long part of the most variable fragment of the control region from one of their two mitochondrial genomes. To this end, 985 specimens were sampled along the European coasts, at sites ranging from the Black Sea to the White Sea. The relevant DNA fragments were amplified, sequenced and analyzed. Contrary to the earlier findings, our coalescence and nested cladistics results show that only a single M. edulis glacial refugium existed in the Atlantic. Despite that, the species survived the glaciation retaining much of its diversity. Unsurprisingly, M. galloprovincialis survived in the Mediterranean Sea. In a relatively short time period, around the climatic optimum at 10 ky ago, the species underwent rapid expansion coupled with population differentiation. Following the expansion, further contemporary gene flow between populations was limited. Heredity (2014) 113, 250-258; doi:10.1038/hdy.2014.23; published online 12 March 2014 INTRODUCTION Sea mussels of the Mytilus edulis species complex, which consists of three subspecies: M. edulis, Mytilus trossulus, and Mytilus galloprovincialis, are widespread in northern and southern hemispheres (Gérard et al., 2008). All three taxa occur in the coastal water ecosystems surrounding Europe (Gosling, 1992). In Europe, M. trossulus prefers lower salinity waters: it has been identified in the Baltic Sea (Väinölä and Hvilsom, 1991), in Norwegian fjords (Ridgway and Naevdal, 2004), in Scotland (Beaumont et al., 2008), and in the Barents Sea (Väinölä and Strelkov, 2011). Single individuals possessing M. trossulus alleles were found in the Netherlands (Śmietanka et al., 2004). M. edulis ranges from the White Sea and the Barents Sea in the north, through the Atlantic coastal waters to southern France in the south. The range of M. galloprovincialis extends from the Azov and the Black Sea to the British Isles. In the areas where two subspecies coexist, hybridization has been observed. Two well-documented hybridization areas between M. edulis and M. trossulus exist in European waters. The first one extends from the Danish Straits into the Baltic Sea up to the Aland Islands, and the second has recently been discovered in Scotland (Beaumont et al., 2008). A strong, unidirectional genetic introgression from M. edulis to M. trossulus has been observed in the Baltic Sea area (Kijewski et al., 2006). The extreme effect is visible at the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) level, for the native M. trossulus mtDNA was replaced by M. edulis mitochondrial genome (Rawson and Hilbish, 1998). Wit...