Evidence that eating frequency is inversely related to body weight status in male, but not female, non-obese adults reporting valid dietary intakes

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships between eating frequency (EF) and body weight status and to determine whether these relationships can be explained in terms of differences in physical activity levels, macronutrient intakes or energy compensation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design; free-living subjects, 48 men and 47 women (aged 20±55 y, body mass index (BMI) 18±30), recruited in a workplace setting. MEASUREMENTS: Height and weight; skinfold thickness (four sites); EF, energy and macronutrient intakes (food diary, unweighed, recorded for seven consecutive days); physical activity (7 d activity diary and heart rate monitoring over 48 h period). RESULTS: In men there was a signi®cant negative correlation between EF and body weight, and an inverse relationship with body mass index (BMI). EF was positively correlated with % energy from carbohydrate, although not with total energy intake. In women, there was no relationship between EF and body weight status; however, there were signi®cant positive correlations between EF and total energy intake, and between EF and intakes of total carbohydrate and sugars. For both men and women, there were associations between EF and physical activity levels, approaching statistical signi®cance. CONCLUSIONS: In men, the association between increased EF and lower body weight status may have been in¯uenced by increased physical activity levels. As energy intake did not increase with EF, men appear to have compensated by reducing the mean energy consumed per eating episode. Energy compensation did not take place in women, with women who ate most frequently having the highest energy intakes, although this did not lead to higher BMIs. Physical activity, through participation in active leisure pursuits, may have been an important factor in weight control in women. The % contribution of carbohydrate to total energy was positively correlated with EF in both men and women, and further analysis showed that snack foods provided a higher proportion of carbohydrate than did foods eaten as meals. These results indicate that a high EF is likely to lead to a high carbohydrate diet, which may be favourable for weight control. Our ®ndings suggest that in this population, a high EF was associated with leanness in men, and there was no link between EF and body weight status in women.

Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults

“…10,11,[57][58][59][60][61][62][63] Also contrary to previous reports showing breakfast skipping, reduced energy intake at breakfast and/or increased energy intake later in the day being associated with a higher BMI or energy intake, 11,12,14,64 we found no such relationships. Instead, total energy intake, or energy at all meals and snacks rather than any particular eating occasion, was associated with a higher BMI in both age groups.…”

Associations between meal and snack frequency and diet quality and adiposity measures in British adults: findings from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey

“…In fact, a very limited number of studies (16,17,19,20) , but not all (1,3,6,10,12,13) , suggest that EF is positively, rather than inversely, associated with adiposity measures after accounting for EI reporting bias. Third, interpreting the literature on EF is complicated by the fact that there is no consensus about what constitutes a snack, a meal or an eating occasion.…”

“…Third, interpreting the literature on EF is complicated by the fact that there is no consensus about what constitutes a snack, a meal or an eating occasion. While some researchers have relied on respondents' self-identification of meals, snacks or eating occasions (2,(5)(6)(7)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)18) , others have attempted to use more objective criteria (1,3,4,(8)(9)(10)16,17,19,20) . As a consequence of these methodological limitations, the discrepant findings are not surprising, and severely impede clarification of the impact of EF on diet quality and adiposity status.…”

Meal and snack frequency in relation to diet quality in US children and adolescents: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003–2012

“…Eating occasions were defined as any occasion when any food or drink was consumed (24)(25)(26)30) . In many previous studies, if two eating occasions occurred in ≤15 min, both events were counted as a single eating occasion; when >15 min separated two eating occasions, these were considered distinct eating occasions (20,21,23,24,30) . In the present study, however, all foods and beverages reported at one discrete clock time were considered as part of one eating occasion, because almost all eating episodes (>99·5 %) occurred at least 15 min apart in NHANES (44) .…”

“…First, EF has often been estimated using a series of self-report questions (8)(9)(10)(11)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19) , the validity of which has not been examined or reported. Only a limited number of studies have estimated EF with the use of information on actual dietary behaviours (based on dietary record or 24 h recall) (20)(21)(22)(23)(24) . Second, there is no consensus about what constitutes a snack, a meal or an eating occasion.…”