Evolution and Conservation on Top of the World: Phylogeography of the Marbled Water Frog (Telmatobius marmoratusSpecies Complex; Anura, Telmatobiidae) in Protected Areas of Chile

Abstract

The Andean Altiplano has served as a complex setting throughout its history, driving dynamic processes of diversification in several taxa. We investigated phylogeographic processes in the Telmatobius marmoratus species complex occurring in this region by studying the geographic patterns of genetic variability, genealogies, and historical migration, using the cytochrome b (cyt-b) gene as a marker. DNA sequences from Telmatobius gigas and Telmatobius culeus, Bolivian species with an uncertain taxonomic status, were also included. Additionally, we evaluated the phylogenetic diversity (PD) represented within Chilean protected areas and the complementary contribution from unprotected populations. Phylogenetic reconstructions from 148 cyt-b sequences revealed 4 main clades, one of which corresponded to T. culeus. T. gigas was part of T. marmoratus clade indicating paraphyletic relationships. Haplotypes from Chilean and Bolivian sites were not reciprocally monophyletic. Geographic distribution of lineages, spatial Bayesian analysis, and migration patterns indicated that T. marmoratus displays a weaker geographic structure than expected based on habitat distribution and physiological requirements. Demographic and statistical phylogeography analyses pointed out to a scenario of recent population expansion and high connectivity events of a more recent age than the post Last Glacial Maximum, probably associated to more humid events in Altiplano. PD of T. marmoratus populations within protected areas represents 55.6% of the total estimated PD. The unprotected populations that would contribute the most to PD are Caquena and Quebe (21%). Recent evolutionary processes and paleoclimatic changes, potentially driving shifts in habitat connectivity levels and population sizes, could explain the phylogeographic patterns recovered herein.

First steps towards assessing the evolutionary history and phylogeography of a widely distributed Neotropical grassland bird (Motacillidae:Anthus correndera)

“…3B ) probably favored gene flow between populations and generated loss of incipient divergence ( Huang & Knowles, 2015 ). For other Andean Altiplano vertebrate taxa, barriers such as rivers, lakes and salt flats, played an important role in shaping their genetic differentiation (e.g., Victoriano et al, 2015 ; Rivera et al, 2016 ), but phylogeographic structure is low even in non-vagile species ( Correa et al, 2010 ; Vila et al, 2013 ; Victoriano et al, 2015 ). So, considering the high vagility of A. correndera, we expected little phylogeographic structure in areas that likely had high connectivity.…”

“…So, considering the high vagility of A. correndera, we expected little phylogeographic structure in areas that likely had high connectivity. For example, in the case of the Andean Altiplano, within the distribution of clade A, some basins between Chile and Bolivia probably permitted a historical connection of populations ( Victoriano et al, 2015 ) that even could have existed until some centuries ago, favored by drastic climatic variations in this area ( Latorre et al, 2003 ; Rech et al, 2003 ; Valero-Garcés et al, 2003 ). The connectivity between suitable habitats for A. correndera was likely maintained during postglacial periods, when melting ice raised the water level of lakes, extending their coverage ( Ochsenius, 1986 ) and probably flooding or saturating large areas that currently do not form water bodies or wetlands ( Victoriano et al, 2015 ).…”

“…For example, in the case of the Andean Altiplano, within the distribution of clade A, some basins between Chile and Bolivia probably permitted a historical connection of populations ( Victoriano et al, 2015 ) that even could have existed until some centuries ago, favored by drastic climatic variations in this area ( Latorre et al, 2003 ; Rech et al, 2003 ; Valero-Garcés et al, 2003 ). The connectivity between suitable habitats for A. correndera was likely maintained during postglacial periods, when melting ice raised the water level of lakes, extending their coverage ( Ochsenius, 1986 ) and probably flooding or saturating large areas that currently do not form water bodies or wetlands ( Victoriano et al, 2015 ). For the lowland populations, especially in Patagonia, a similar pattern of high connectivity could be favored by the glacial distribution that left some stable areas (identified in the ENM analysis), which were concordant with the lowland glacial refuges identified by Sérsic et al (2011) .…”

“…However, approximately 15% of South America is covered in various types of natural open lowland and montane grasslands ( Eva et al, 2004 ). The Central Andes are considered a strong vicariant force for lowland-adapted taxa, isolating ancestral populations on both sides of the cordillera ( Chapman, 1926 ; Brumfield & Capparella, 1996 ; Miller et al, 2008 ; Victoriano et al, 2015 ; Rivera et al, 2016 ). At the same time, the Andes are a source of diversification for highland taxa, particularly during glacial cycles ( Weir, 2006 ; Weir, 2009 ; Sedano & Burns, 2010 ; Gutiérrez-Pinto et al, 2012 ; Valderrama et al, 2014 ; Beckman & Witt, 2015 ).…”

Estado de conocimiento y conservación de los anfibios de Chile: una síntesis de los últimos 10 años de investigación

“…Los artículos que reportan principalmente nuevas localidades o ampliaciones de rango se indican por separado en la columna Distribución geográfi ca. Correa et al (2012Correa et al ( , 2013a, Vásquez et al (2013) R. atacamensis Sallaberry et al (2007a), Correa et al (2008a R. spinulosa Gutiérrez et al (2008), Márquez-García et al (2009, , Naya et al (2009aNaya et al ( , 2009b T. chusmisensis Formas et al (2006) T. marmoratus Victoriano et al (2015) T. laevis Cuevas (2013), Correa (en prensa) A. hugoi Araya & Cisternas (2008) A. montanus Araya & Riveros (2008), Correa et al (2008c) A. norae Cuevas (2008b) A. pehuenche Corbalán et al 2010 Frost et al (2006) propusieron la primera subdivisión de Bufo en varios géneros, entre los que se incluían los nombres antiguos Chaunus y Nannophryne. El uso de Chaunus fue breve ya que Chaparro et al (2007) mostraron que el nombre más adecuado para este linaje sudamericano era Rhinella (cambio mencionado en , mientras que la especie N. variegata volvió a tener su designación original.…”