Evolution of potential distributions during the charging of nano-structured metal oxide films in air as response to sudden voltage application

Solid-state electrochemistry on the nanometer and atomic scales: the scanning probe microscopy approach

“…Hence is the need for detecting the surface ionic motion and electrochemical reactions separately from the electronic transport, and with a high spatial resolution. Classical methods, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), 103,104 surface conductometry, [105][106][107] vibrating reed electrometry, 99 electrostatic force microscopy, 108,109 Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) [110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120] and similar SPM techniques [121][122][123][124][125][126] either suffer from a low spatial resolution, or only measure the overall electronic-plus-ionic response. However, electronic and ionic charge carriers typically have vastly different response times to electric stimulation, as determined by their corresponding transport coefficients.…”

Space- and Time-Resolved Mapping of Ionic Dynamic and Electroresistive Phenomena in Lateral Devices

“…Understanding the electronic transport in lateral devices has necessitated the development of several current- (AFM- and STM-based potentiometry and nanoimpedance microscopies − ) and force-sensitive scanning probe microscopy (SPM) techniques. These techniques can be considered nanoscale analogs of the classical methods of determining potential distribution, such as moving vibrating reed electrometry and lateral electrode conductometry. − In particular, Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) − and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) , have emerged as powerful characterization methods and have been used in recent decades for studies of charge transport and accumulation in transistors, , solar and electrochemical cells, , microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), , gas sensors, − ferroelectric devices, and electroceramics. − This approach was further extended to map out linear and nonlinear frequency-dependent transport, as implemented in the scanning impedance microscopy (SIM) and its nonlinear analogs. ,− …”