Evolution of the Gut Microbiome in Early Childhood: A Cross-Sectional Study of Chinese Children

Abstract

Temporal development of the human gut microbiome from infancy to childhood is driven by a variety of factors. We surveyed the fecal microbiome of 729 Chinese children aged 0-36 months, aiming to identify the age-specific patterns of microbiota succession, and evaluate the impact of birth mode, gender, geographical location, and gastrointestinal tract symptoms on the shaping of the gut microbiome. We demonstrated that phylogenetic diversity of the gut microbiome increased gradually over time, which was accompanied by an increase in Bacteroidetes and a reduction in Proteobacteria species. Analysis of community-wide phenotypes revealed a succession from aerobic bacteria and anaerobic bacteria to facultative anaerobes, and from Gramnegative to Gram-positive species during gut microbiota development in early childhood. The metabolic functions of the gut microbiome shifted tremendously alongside early physiological development, including an increase in alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism, and a reduction in glutathione, fatty acid, and tyrosine metabolism. During the first year of life, the Bacteroidetes phylum was less abundant in children born by casarean section compared with those delivered vaginally. The Enterococcaceae family, a group of facultative anaerobic microorganisms with pathogenic potential, was predominant in preterm infants. No measurable effect of maternal antibiotic exposure on gut microbiota development was found in the first 3 years of life. The relative abundances of Coriobacteriaceae and Streptococcaceae families, and Megasphaera genus were found to be higher in girls than in boys. Among the three first-tier Chinese cities, children born and fed in Beijing had a higher abundance of Enterococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae families, and Shenzhen children had a higher abundance of Fusobacteriaceae. The families Alcaligenaceae, Bacteroidaceae, and Porphyromonadaceae were more abundant in children with constipation, whereas the relative abundance of the Clostridium genus was higher in those with diarrhea.

Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) exposures exert a sustained influence on the progression of gut microbiota and metabolome in the first year of life

“…In the same study, all healthy Chinese infants (age < 3 months) from China were “P-type” (abundant in Proteobacteria), with Escherichia/ Shigella and Klebsiella being the dominant genera 15 . Consistently, our data demonstrates that gut microbiota of all infants were dominated by Proteobacteria which gradually decreased thereafter, in line with the previous findings in which the abundance of Proteobacteria (mainly Enterobacteriaceae ) gradually decreased from birth up to 24 months of life 23 . It was reported that geographical location exerted a stronger influence to the compositional differences in gut microbiome than other factors 24 .…”

“…In this study, majority of the taxa with significant correlations in preterm group belonged to phylum Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Proteobacteria, despite being the most dominant phyla, might be transiently available in the neonatal gut 23 . Thus, when comparison was made, taxa that distinguish between term and preterm group were Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes.…”

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Promote the Development and Growth of Human Salivary Stones

“…We detected various bacterial taxa typically present in the oral (Streptococcus dentisani [ 60 ]; Streptococcus intermedius [ 61 ]; Fusobacterium nucleatum [ 62 ]; Prevotella spp. [ 63 ]) and intestinal microflora (Barnesiella intestinihominis [ 64 ]; Porphyromonadaceae [ 65 ]). In addition, we observed the genus Phenylobacterium, which was reported to be present in the middle ear [ 66 ], putatively being a commensal of the upper aerodigestive tract.…”

Development and Growth of Human Salivary Stones by Neutrophil Extracellular Traps

“…We detected various bacterial taxa typically present in the oral [Streptococcus dentisani 55 ; Streptococcus intermedius 56 ; Fusobacterium nucleatum 57 ; Prevotella spp. 58 ] and intestinal micro ora [Barnesiella intestinihominis 59 ; Porphyromonadaceae 60 ]. In addition, we observed the genus Phenylobacterium, reported to be present in the middle ear 61 , putatively being a commensal of the upper aerodigestive tract.…”