Evolutionary Considerations on the Emerging Subculture of the E-psychonauts and the Novel Psychoactive Substances: A Comeback to the Shamanism?

Abstract

Background: Evolutionary research on drug abuse has hitherto been restricted to proximate studies, considering aetiology, mechanism, and ontogeny. However, in order to explain the recent emergency of a new behavioral pattern (e.g. ‘the e-psychonaut style’) of novel psychoactive substances’ (NPS) intake, a complementary evolutionary model may be needed.ObjectiveA range of evolutionary interpretations on the ‘psychonaut style’ and the recent emergency of NPS were here considered.MethodThe PubMed database was searched in order to elicit evolutionary theory-based documents commenting on NPS/NPS users/e-psychonauts.ResultsThe traditional ‘shamanic style’ use of entheogens/plant-derived compounds may present with a range of similarities with the ‘e-psychonauts’ use of mostly of hallucinogen/psychedelic NPS. These users consider themselves as ‘new/technological’ shamans.ConclusionIndeed, a range of evolutionary mechanisms, such as: optimal foraging, costly signaling, and reproduction at the expense of health may all cooperate to explain the recent spread and diffusion of the NPS market, and this may represent a reason of concern.

New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) – a Challenge for the Addiction Treatment Services

“…From this perspective, one could argue that the potential NPS user should be somehow cautious in self-administering a molecule that is mostly unknown or that is not even the one it is claimed to be when acquired. For the so called "e-psychonauts" (e. g., NPS enthusiasts [60]), however, risk-taking and novelty-seeking personality characteristics might be the main reasons behind unregulated drugs/NPS intake [60]. However, being unregulated does not necessarily mean being harmless as well.…”

A qualitative descriptive analysis of effects of psychedelic phenethylamines and tryptamines

“…Much coverage also focuses on poisonings, in which the main focus is adverse effects and not general effects. Despite the lack of academic literature focusing on the effects of these drugs, rich descriptions can often be located on online message forums such as BlueLight, in which “psychonauts” (those who explore altered states of consciousness through various drugs; Orsolini et al, ) and other individuals post reports describing their experiences (Enghoff & Aldridge, ; Lamy et al, ). Other rich sources of information are the seminal works authored by Dr. Alexander Shulgin and Ann Shulgin: Phenethylamines I Have Known and Loved (PiHKAL) and Tryptamines I Have Known and Loved (TiHKAL) (Shulgin & Shulgin, , ).…”

Coming Off Prescribed Psychotropic Medications: Insights from Their Use as Recreational Drugs

“…nifoxi-and tofisopam; adina-, broma-, clonitra-, clobroma-, clona-, deschloroeti-, eti-, flubroma-, flualpra-, flucloti-, flunitra-, meti-, nitra-, phena-, and pyrazolam, and Ro-07-4065 [26] For phenazepam, the most well-known exotic molecule: it can be ingested, snorted or injected, euphoric effects but also amnesia, drowsiness, dizziness, somnolence, difficulty in waking up, muscle weakness, headache, weakening of attention, incoordination, blurred vision, slurred speech, ataxia, and muscle weakness; at high dosages, delirium and psychosislike behaviour [26,27,29] Similar to traditional BDZ, withdrawal, dependence, and tolerance have been documented The withdrawal syndrome may however be arguably more intense when abruptly discontinuing potent/very potent BDZ Alprazolam: 30 mg or even higher dosages being anecdotally reported Clonazepam ingestion: oral, snorting, intramuscular; dosage: euphoria being achieved with 8-12 mg [53] Phenazepam is 5-10× more potent than diazepam [26,29] Etizolam: being ingested at >4 mg [26] Pyrazolam is 12× more potent than diazepam; dosage: >3-4 mg [26] Flubromazepam: >8-12 mg [26] Meclonazepam: >1-2 mg [26] Flubromazolam: 400-600 µg is considered a very high dosage [24] Z-drugs (zaleplon, zolpidem, and zopiclone)…”