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Abstract-Two alkylated 1,4-benzoquinones were identified from the defensive secretion produced by the neotropical harvestman Goniosoma longipes (Gonyleptidae). They were characterized as 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-3-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. We tested the effectiveness of these benzoquinone secretions against several predator types, including invertebrates and vertebrates. Different predators were exposed to the harvestmen's gland secretion or to distilled water in laboratory bioassays. Our results indicate that secretions containing the 1,4-benzoquinones released by G. longipes can be an effective defense against predation, and that the effectiveness of the secretion is dependent on the predator type. The scent gland secretion repelled seven ant species, two species of large wandering spiders, and one frog species, but was not an effective defense against an opossum. Our study also demonstrates that the scent gland secretion of G. longipes can work as a chemical shield preventing the approach of three large predatory ants for at least 10 min. The chemical shield may protect the harvestman against successive attacks of the same ant worker and also allow the harvestman to flee before massive ant recruitment. Our data support the suggestion that chemical defenses may increase survival with some but not all potential predators. This variation in defense effectiveness may result from many interacting factors, including the attack strategy, size, learning ability, and physiology of the predators, as well as the chemical nature of the defensive compounds, type of emission, and amount of effluent released by the prey.
Abstract-Two alkylated 1,4-benzoquinones were identified from the defensive secretion produced by the neotropical harvestman Goniosoma longipes (Gonyleptidae). They were characterized as 2,3-dimethyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-3-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone. We tested the effectiveness of these benzoquinone secretions against several predator types, including invertebrates and vertebrates. Different predators were exposed to the harvestmen's gland secretion or to distilled water in laboratory bioassays. Our results indicate that secretions containing the 1,4-benzoquinones released by G. longipes can be an effective defense against predation, and that the effectiveness of the secretion is dependent on the predator type. The scent gland secretion repelled seven ant species, two species of large wandering spiders, and one frog species, but was not an effective defense against an opossum. Our study also demonstrates that the scent gland secretion of G. longipes can work as a chemical shield preventing the approach of three large predatory ants for at least 10 min. The chemical shield may protect the harvestman against successive attacks of the same ant worker and also allow the harvestman to flee before massive ant recruitment. Our data support the suggestion that chemical defenses may increase survival with some but not all potential predators. This variation in defense effectiveness may result from many interacting factors, including the attack strategy, size, learning ability, and physiology of the predators, as well as the chemical nature of the defensive compounds, type of emission, and amount of effluent released by the prey.
EpígrafeComo a essência -ao contrário dos fenômenos -não se manifesta diretamente, e desde que o fundamento oculto das coisas deve ser descoberto mediante uma atividade peculiar, tem de existir a ciência e a filosofia. Se a aparência fenomênica e a essência das coisas coincidissem diretamente, a ciência e a filosofia Cruz e Waldir Caldeira (Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, IBUSP), pela ajuda dedicada e sugestões quanto às técnicas de microscopia eletrônica.À diretoria do CEBIMar-USP por ter facultado o uso das suas instalações e a todos os funcionários do centro. Gostaria de registrar aqui meu reconhecimento aos Rhombognathus (Halacaridae, Acari), its spermiogenesis and spermatozoa.Journal of Natural History, 41(37), 2433 -2445 1 Capítulo 1. Introdução geral IntroduçãoHalacaridae é a única família de ácaros aquáticos a povoar toda a gama de habitats marinhos. Enquanto famílias de ácaros, como Selenoribatidae, Fortuyniidae (Oribatida) e Hyadesiidae (Astigmata), restringem-se à região entre marés, e a pouco diversificada superfamília Pontarachnoidea é encontrada em alguns habitats no infralitoral, os halacarídeos são encontrados desde a região de borrifo de ondas no supralitoral até profundezas abissais. Ambientes aquáticos tão diversos quanto chaminés vulcânicas submarinas (Bartsch, 1996a), manguezais (Bartsch, 2003a; Proches, 2002) e água doce (Bartsch, 1996b) apresentam faunas diversificadas de halacarídeos. Eles também aparecem associados a diversos grupos animais, como esponjas, nemertinos, ouriços-do-mar, quítons, gastrópodes, lagostins de água doce, caranguejos e lagostas (uma revisão dessas associações é encontrada em Pepato et. al., 2005).Halacaridae inclui mais de mil espécies descritas, distribuídas por 51 gêneros marinhos. Um único gênero, Copidognathus, contém um terço de todas as espécies descritas. Por outro lado, onze gêneros são monotípicos (Bartsch, 2004a). Apesar da diversidade e abundância, a literatura referente a Halacaridae restringe-se quase que exclusivamente a trabalhos descritivos. Pouco se investigou sobre a história evolutiva da família, sua morfologia interna e suas relações filogenéticas com outros grupos de ácaros.Newell (1984) propôs uma origem polifilética, ou ao menos difilética, paraHalacaridae. Nesse mesmo artigo, Newell elevou as subfamílias Lohmannellinae, Rhombognathinae e Halacarinae, até então incluídas em Halacaridae, para o nível de 2 família. Exceto pela posição dos palpos (dorsais nos Lohmannelinae), no entanto, Newell não apresentou evidência morfológica que sustentasse sua hipótese.Schwoerbel (1986) propôs Hydrovolziidae como grupo-irmão de Halacaridae baseado em informações errôneas quanto à morfologia e ao desenvolvimento daquela família como, por exemplo, a ausência de acetábulos genitais externos e a existência de larvas de vida livre. A inclusão de Hydrovolziidae em Parasintegona (ver, por exemplo, Panesar, 2004) corresponde melhor ao conhecimento atual sobre o grupo.Harvey (1990) rejeitou a hipótese de polifiletismo proposta por Newell e sus...
In this updated version some new and basic information has been added to Chapter 1 in order to provide the reader with some biological background about mites: their place in the animal kingdom, their classification, and characteristics of these very small animals. In addition the list of currently known, economically important mites has been updated. Since the use of predatory mites in integrated pest management is becoming increasingly important, some commercially available predatory mites are briefly described. Chapter 2 has been expanded with further information on the chemical properties of the compounds, e.g. their environmental stability, or lability, as an aid to better understanding their behavior in the environment. Chapter 3 has been supplemented with ecological data on various avian and aquatic species. The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. General Information 1.2. Characterization and Classification of Acari 1.3. Economically Important Mites 1.4. Life Cycle, Behavior, and Characteristics of Mites 1.5. Chemical Control of Mites 1.6. Integrated Pest Management 2. Acaricides 2.1. Antibiotic Acaricides 2.1.1. Nucleotide Analogue Acaricides 2.1.2. Macrocyclic Lactone Acaricides 2.1.2.1. Avermectin Acaricides 2.1.2.2. Milbemycin Acaricides 2.2. Bridged Diphenyl Acaricides 2.3. Carbamate and Oxime Carbamate Acaricides 2.3.1. Carbamate Acaricides 2.3.2. Oxime Carbamate Acaricides 2.4. Carbazate Acaricides 2.5. Dinitrophenol Acaricides 2.6. Formamidine Acaricides 2.7. Mite Growth Regulators 2.8. Organochlorine Acaricides 2.9. Organophosphorus Acaricides 2.9.1. Organophosphate Acaricides 2.9.2. Organothiophosphate Acaricides 2.9.3. Phosphonate Acaricides 2.9.4. Phosphoramidothioate Acaricides 2.10. Organotin Acaricides 2.11. Phenylsulfamide Acaricides 2.12. Pyrazole and Phenylpyrazole Acaricides 2.13. Pyrethroid Acaricides 2.13.1. Pyrethroid Ester Acaricides 2.13.2. Pyrethroid Ether Acaricides 2.14. Pyrrole Acaricides 2.15. Quinoxaline Acaricides 2.16. Sulfite Ester Acaricides 2.17. Unclassified Acaricides 3. Toxikology 3.1. Antibiotic Acaricides 3.1.1. Nucleotide Analogue Acaricides 3.1.2. Macrocyclic Lactone Acaricides 3.1.2.1. Avermectin Acaricides 3.1.2.2. Milbemycin Acaricides 3.2. Bridged Diphenyl Acaricides 3.3. Carbamate And Oxime Carbamate Acaricides 3.3.1. Carbamate Acaricides 3.3.2. Oxime Carbamate Acaricides 3.4. Carbazate Acaricides 3.5. Dinitrophenol Acaricides 3.6. Formamidine Acaricides 3.7. Mite Growth Regulators 3.8. Organochlorine Acaricides 3.9. Organophosphorus Acaricides 3.9.1. Organophosphate Acaricides 3.9.2. Organothiophosphate Acaricides 3.9.3. Phosphonate Acaricides 3.9.4. Phosphoramidothioate Acaricides 3.10. Organotin Acaricides 3.11. Phenylsulfamide Acaricides 3.12. Pyrazole And Phenylpyrazole Acaricides 3.13. Pyrethroid Acaricides 3.13.1. Pyrethroid Ester Acaricides 3.13.2. Pyrethroid Ether Acaricides 3.14. Pyrrole Acaricides 3.15. Quinoxaline Acaricides 3.16. Sulfite Ester Acaricides 3.17. Unclassified Acaricides References
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