“…However, high-fidelity modeling of the additive manufacturing process has proven difficult due to the influence of multi-scale and multi-physics phenomena such as nucleation and solidification, powder packing and multi-pass effects, fluid flow and Marangoni effects, martensitic transformations, as well as the contribution from defects such as key-holing, lack of fusion, vaporization, solute segregation, and hot cracking. As such, various simulation techniques have been employed to capture different mechanisms of the fabrication process, including phase field modeling (PFM) [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , kinetic Monte Carlo (kMC) [27] , [28] , the finite element method (FEM) [21] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [20] , [34] , and cellular automata (CA) [35] , [36] , [37] , [38] , [39] .…”