Examination of a non-invasive biomarker for the diagnosis of prodromal Alzheimer's disease and Alzheimer's disease Dementia

Body Fluid Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s Disease—An Up-To-Date Overview

“…Owing to its iron-binding activity, lactoferrin is a multifunctional protein that exhibits antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergenic properties [ 160 , 162 , 163 , 164 ]. Moreover, while there is evidence of lactoferrin presence within the human brain, its levels are substantially increased in AD patients and those with related neurodegenerative disorders, which could be attributed to its Aβ-binding ability [ 165 , 166 , 167 ]. Therefore, lactoferrin has been associated with AD pathogenesis, as it has been detected in the amyloid plaques, NFTs and microglia of AD brains [ 164 , 165 ].…”

Lactoferrin and Its Detection Methods: A Review

“…They can provide a powerful tool to understand the prediction, cause, diagnosis, progression, regression, or outcome of treatment of disease, such as glucosyl sphingosine, a biomarker for diagnosis of Gaucher disease [ 55 ], subregional neuroanatomical for Alzheimer’s disease [ 56 ], and serum CA 19-9 for pancreatic cancer [ 57 ]. LF can be found in fecal, milk, serum, tears and other secretions from human body, and has been reported as a biomarker to indicate several diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) [ 26 , 27 ], Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [ 28 ] and dry eye disease (DED) [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ].…”

“…Efforts have been made to develop a quick and cost-effective method for the diagnosis of AD. Accumulated evidence indicated that bacterial and viral infections may cause AD [ 76 , 77 , 78 ] and lead to a deteriorated innate immune system in AD pathophysiology [ 28 ]. Since saliva with many antimicrobial proteins is considered as the first line of the body’s defense [ 79 ], there are some reports on the relationship between oral infections and AD [ 80 , 81 ].…”

“…Besides, this study also proved that apparently healthy participants but with low levels of salivary LF would have a relative high possibility of AD in the future. González’s study continued to use salivary LF to diagnose prodromal AD and further studied the relationship between salivary LF and cerebral amyloid-β (Aβ); the result showed that salivary LF levels would not decrease in other dementias, such as the frontotemporal dementia, and reduced LF may be attributed to the disruption of hypothalamic function because of the early hypothalamic Aβ accumulation [ 28 ].…”

“…The major functions of LF related to the antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory activities have been investigated. Recent studies indicate that LF can be considered as a biomarker in the diagnosis of some diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dry eye disease (DED) [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Instrumental analysis (high performance liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis), immunoassay method (radial immunodiffusion and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) and various sensors (fluorescence, electrochemical and surface plasmon resonance) have been studied for the measurement of LF, but none of them are satisfactory.…”