Examining Early Child Development in Low-Income Countries

Abstract

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Cluster-randomised controlled trials of individual and combined water, sanitation, hygiene and nutritional interventions in rural Bangladesh and Kenya: the WASH Benefits study design and rationale

“…We will calculate differences between groups in LAZ at the 12-month measurement and stunting prevalence (LAZ<–2) at the 24-month measurement. At the 24-month visit, we will measure child development in communication, gross motor and personal/social domains using the Extended Ages and Stages Questionnaire11 101; the instrument has been adapted to each study population, relies on caregiver's report and has been used in many low-income countries 102. We will compare groups for each domain independently and overall by summing scores across domains.…”

“…During this early window, undernutrition and infection likely influence child development and human capital through additional pathways besides linear growth 8–10. Unfortunately, measuring child development at very young ages is difficult11 and documenting the full range of intervention impact thus requires longer term follow-up 4…”

Validity of US norms for the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-III in Malawian children

“…11 Successful generation of a new test involves an inter-disciplinary research team, an adequate representative sample for testing items and test cohesion, and the concurrent development of norms or standards that represent typical development. 12 For example, the Kilifi Developmental Inventory is a new tool designed to monitor and describe the development of at-risk children in resource-limited settings in Kenya. 11 A new test ensures a culturally appropriate psychometric tool but its development is resource-intensive and prohibits use beyond its target population, thus limiting comparability of findings with other tests and across populations.…”

“…Published guidelines have been developed for this process, which typically involves translation of test materials, modification of test items inappropriate for the local context to preserve consistency with the constructs measured, followed by a process of iterative adaptation and testing of the assessment tool. 12–14 For example, Nampijja et al successfully adapted several Western measures to assess cognition in 5-year-old semi-urban Ugandan children. 15 Gladstone et al employed a hybrid approach in which existing test items were modified for local context and combined with new test items designed specifically for the population under study.…”

Selecting measures for the neurodevelopmental assessment of children in low- and middle-income countries

“…As of July 2014 low income countries are defined as $1,045 or less GNI in 2013 and middle-income as those with a GNI of more than $1045 and less than $12,746 (World Bank, 2015). Iron deficiency, malaria, HIV, helminth infections and other disorders that affect neurodevelopment continue to afflict millions of children each year in low and middle income countries (LMIC) (Fernald, Kariger, Engle, & Raikes, 2009). Great progress has been made over the past twenty years in improving care of children with these diseases and child survival rates are improving (World Bank, 2011).…”