Executive functions as moderators of the worked example effect: When shifting is more important than working memory capacity.

Abstract

Worked examples have proven to be effective for knowledge acquisition compared with problem solving, particularly when prior knowledge is low (e.g., Kalyuga, 2007). However, in addition to prior knowledge, executive functions and fluid intelligence might be potential moderators of the effectiveness of worked examples. The present study examines the roles of the executive functions of working memory capacity and shifting, as well as the role of fluid intelligence for knowledge acquisition in the presence or absence of worked examples. Seventy-six university students learned to solve statistical problems either with worked examples or through problem solving (the absence of worked examples). Results showed that shifting and fluid intelligence, but not prior knowledge and working memory capacity, moderated the effect of the presence of worked examples on knowledge acquisition. The higher the shifting ability and fluid intelligence were, the lower was the benefit of worked examples compared with problem solving. Learning environments did not differ with respect to cognitive load, and cognitive load was not correlated with working memory capacity, but it was correlated with fluid intelligence. These findings suggest that other important cognitive functions, such as shifting and fluid intelligence, might be more important than prior knowledge or working memory when worked examples are compared with problem solving. Future research can further examine whether the relative contribution of the different functions is likely to depend on the characteristics of the respective tasks—that is, whether a task puts a high or low demand on these cognitive functions.

Executive functions in the context of complex learning: Malleable moderators?

“…Learners with high fluid intelligence do not need this instructional support because they can more easily use their reasoning capacity to determine which information is necessary to solve a given problem. In line with this argumentation, Schwaighofer et al (2016) found that the benefits of worked examples compared to problem solving were lower the higher fluid intelligence was. In that study, the moderating role of fluid intelligence was independent of working memory capacity and shifting.…”

“…In addition to task complexity, other context characteristics such as time constraints may play a role for ATIs. In the study by Schwaighofer et al (2016) the effectiveness of worked examples was not moderated by working memory capacity. One plausible reason could be that learners did not have to work under time pressure.…”

“…De Jong (2010) lists some studies as exceptions, but in these as well as more recent studies (e.g., Lehmann, Goussios, & Seufert, 2016;Park, Korbach, & Brünken, 2015), working memory was measured by using only one single task. Hence, task-specific influences are not eliminated (Schwaighofer, Bühner, & Fischer, 2016). Furthermore, in some of these studies, working memory capacity has been included as a control variable and not as a moderator variable (e.g., Berends & van Lieshout, 2009;Park et al, 2015).…”

“…In contrast, learners with high shifting ability may not benefit from such instructional support because they can deal with high shifting demands. In a recent study, Schwaighofer et al (2016) investigated the moderating role of the executive functions of working memory capacity and shifting as well as fluid intelligence for the effectiveness of worked examples versus problem solving. Compared to problem solving, worked examples had lower benefits the higher the shifting was.…”

“…Complex tasks can vary in their demand on cognitive functions, and certain instructional support may reduce these demands. For example, shifting demands in a problem-solving condition may be reduced in the presence of worked examples (Schwaighofer et al, 2016). In addition to task complexity, other context characteristics such as time constraints may play a role for ATIs.…”