Expanding the developmental models of writing: A direct and indirect effects model of developmental writing (DIEW).

Abstract

We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1. In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing.

The effects of genetic and environmental factors on writing development

“…However, it also has the potential disadvantage of obscuring their complexity and interrelationships. Theoretical models and empirical evidence has clearly indicated the importance of various writing components, such as transcription skills (i.e., spelling and handwriting fluency; Berninger & Winn, 2006; Graham et al, 1997; Kim & Schatschneider, 2017). Therefore, future work should aim to examine etiology of additional writing components.…”

“…Graham’s (in press) model as well as other developmental models of writing (e.g., not-so-simple view by Berninger & Winn, 2006; Direct and Indirect Effects model of Writing [DIEW] by Kim & Schatschneider, 2017) highlight cognitive components that likely provide some of the sources for individual differences in writing. Unpacking the broad etiological sources associated with individual differences in a phenotype like writing can be accomplished using twin study methodology.…”

“…There is abundant empirical evidence to support this. For example, oral language knowledge, including phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic knowledge (Arfe, Dockrell, & De Bernardi, 2016; Babayigit, 2014; Hooper et al, 2011; Kim, et al, 2014; Kim, et al, 2015; Kim & Schatschneider, 2017; McCarthy & Jarvis, 2007; McNamara, Crossley, & McCarthy, 2010), as well as control mechanisms (Altemeier, Abbott, & Berninger, 2008; Graham, Harris, & Olinghouse, 2007; Hayes, 2000; Hooper et al, 2011; Kim & Schatschneider, 2017; Limpo & Alves, 2013), and production processes (Abbott & Berninger, 1993; Arfe, Dockrell, & De Bernardi, 2016; Graham et al, 1997; Hayes, 2012; Kim & Schatschneider, 2017; Kim et al, 2013, 2015; Limpo & Alves, 2013) have been shown to contribute to writing. These cognitive resources are not fixed, but are assumed to be modifiable.…”

“…Specifically, we examined in three separate models to what extent lexical diversity, syntactic knowledge, and semantic cohesion knowledge are etiologically related to writing. From an empirically informed point, a focus on these specific components of writing is justified by the fact that although other cognitive mechanisms (e.g., working memory; Kim & Schatschneider, 2017) account for substantial portions of variation in writing, they do not account for all the variation. Thus, this leaves room for investigation of other components, which contribute to individual differences in the compositional quality (Abbott & Berninger, 1993) and are malleable by instruction.…”

“…Finally, writing was operationalized as writing quality. It refers to aspects of writing such as ideas and organization (Kim & Schatschneider, 2017). It is an essential, and arguably the most important aspect to be evaluated in writing (Kim et al, 2015).…”