Experimental investigations of control principles of involuntary movement: a comprehensive review of the Kohnstamm phenomenon

Abstract

The Kohnstamm phenomenon refers to the observation that if one pushes the arm hard outwards against a fixed surface for about 30 s, and then moves away from the surface and relaxes, an involuntary movement of the arm occurs, accompanied by a feeling of lightness. Central, peripheral and hybrid theories of the Kohnstamm phenomenon have been advanced. Afferent signals may be irrelevant if purely central theories hold. Alternatively, according to peripheral accounts, altered afferent signalling actually drives the involuntary movement. Hybrid theories suggest afferent signals control a centrally-programmed aftercontraction via negative position feedback control or positive force feedback control. The Kohnstamm phenomenon has provided an important scientific method for comparing voluntary with involuntary movement, both with respect to subjective experience, and for investigating whether involuntary movements can be brought under voluntary control. A full review of the literature reveals that a hybrid model best explains the Kohnstamm phenomenon. On this model, a central adaptation interacts with afferent signals at multiple levels of the motor hierarchy. The model assumes that a Kohnstamm generator sends output via the same pathways as voluntary movement, yet the resulting movement feels involuntary due to a lack of an efference copy to cancel against sensory inflow. This organisation suggests the Kohnstamm phenomenon could represent an amplification of neuromotor processes normally involved in automatic postural maintenance. Future work should determine which afferent signals contribute to the Kohnstamm phenomenon, the location of the Kohnstamm generator, and the principle of feedback control operating during the aftercontraction.

Human Postural Control

“…Under narcosis, muscle tone disappears while tonic activity can be observed during sleeping, since there are some active phases accompanied by muscle tonic contractions (Harris, 2005 ; Peever, 2011 ; Huon and Guilleminault, 2017 ). Among important examples of long-lasting involuntary activity are the tonic vibration reflex (Eklund and Hagbarth, 1966 ) and involuntary postcontraction muscle activity (Salmon, 1914 ; Kohnstamm, 1915 ) that have been suggested to represent an amplification of neuromotor processes normally involved in automatic posture maintenance and tonic spinal activity (De Havas et al, 2017 ; Ivanenko et al, 2017 ).…”

Low Gain Servo Control During the Kohnstamm Phenomenon Reveals Dissociation Between Low-Level Control Mechanisms for Involuntary vs. Voluntary Arm Movements

“…Our results indicate that servo-control exists during the Kohnstamm aftercontraction, but with lower gain than during voluntary control. This afferent-mediated control of EMG may occur at a lower level than the Kohnstamm generator and may not alter the output of the Kohnstamm generator itself (De Havas et al, 2015 ; De Havas, 2016 ; De Havas et al, 2017 ). However, it be should noted that multiple neural mechanisms could be jointly involved in generating Kohnstamm aftercontractions (see for example Selionov et al, 2009 , 2013 ; Solopova et al, 2014 , 2016 ).…”

“…The results reported in this manuscript first appeared as part of JDH’s doctoral thesis (De Havas, 2016 ).…”

“…The Kohnstamm phenomenon, however, provides a useful experimental model to investigate differences between voluntary and involuntary movements (Duclos et al, 2007 ; De Havas et al, 2017 ). Classically, participants hold the arm straight and vertical by their side and push outwards against a solid surface for 30 s, by a strong voluntary contraction of the lateral deltoid muscle.…”

Voluntary inhibitory motor control over involuntary tic movements

“…One defining feature of voluntary motor control is the characteristic subjective experience of initiating one's own actions. This experience is quite different from that of involuntary or passive movements . Therefore, several studies have attempted to investigate the experience of voluntary actions and of tics in patients with TS, as a means of studying potential alterations of volition.…”