“…Particles with high values maintain larger distances than those between particles with lower surface-charge densities. mental measurements of such properties as osmotic pressure (Barclay et al, 1972), disjoining pressure (Peschel and Belouschek, 1977), and freezing point depression of water in clay pastes (Helmy et al, 1979). The distances between particles may be obtained from X-ray diffraction methods (Norrish, 1954), and the average water film thickness, i.e., the average distance between the particles, is in turn available from water content measurements if the specific surface area of the sample is also known.…”