Exploring Indus crop processing: combining phytolith and macrobotanical analyses to consider the organisation of agriculture in northwest India c. 3200–1500 bc

Abstract

This paper presents a preliminary study combining macrobotanical and phytolith analyses to explore crop processing at archaeological sites in Haryana and Rajasthan, northwest India. Current understanding of the agricultural strategies in use by populations associated with South Asia's Indus Civilisation (3200-1900 BC) has been derived from a small number of systematic macrobotanical studies focusing on a small number of sites, with little use of multi-proxy analysis. In this study both phytolith and macrobotanical analyses are used to explore the organisation of crop processing at five small Indus settlements with a view to understanding the impact of urban development and decline on village agriculture. The differing preservation potential of the two proxies has allowed for greater insights into the different stages of processing represented at these sites: with macrobotanical remains allowing for more species-level specific analysis, though due to poor chaff presentation the early stages of processing were missed; however these early stages of processing were evident in the less highly resolved but better preserved phytolith remains. The combined analyses suggests that crop processing aims and organisation differed according to the season of cereal growth, contrary to current models of Indus Civilisation labour organisation that suggest change over time. The study shows that the agricultural strategies of these frequently overlooked smaller sites question the simplistic models that have traditionally been assumed for the time period, and that both multi-proxy analysis and rural settlements are deserving of further exploration.

Cereals, calories and change: exploring approaches to quantification in Indus archaeobotany

“…Here, we will focus on cereals, as they are the most commonly reported botanical remains from Indus sites (Fuller and Madella 2002;Bates 2016, forthcoming). Cereals were also the most dense, the most ubiquitous and proportionately the largest plant group from the quantified sites that have been explored (Bates 2016;Bates et al 2017aBates et al , 2017bPetrie and Bates in press;Petrie et al 2016Petrie et al , 2017. Even when focusing just on the cereals, there are difficulties in making comparisons, as each species has different rates of production.…”

“…A different pattern has been Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12520-017-0489-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. observed in several new archaeobotanical datasets from the north-east zone of the Indus Civilisation, however (Bates 2016;Bates et al 2017aBates et al , 2017bPetrie and Bates in press;Petrie et al 2016Petrie et al , 2017. Analysis of floated samples from five of the six small village sites excavated by the Land, Water and Settlement project (Singh et al 2008(Singh et al , 2010a(Singh et al , 2010b(Singh et al , 2011(Singh et al , 2013a(Singh et al , 2013bPetrie et al 2009Petrie et al , 2016Petrie et al , 2017Pawar 2012;Bates 2016;Bates et al 2017aBates et al , 2017bParikh and Petrie 2017) that are spread across the plains of north-west India has suggested that despite there being some similarities (such as the range of taxa cultivated), there were differences in the proportions of individual crops at each settlement and in each period (Bates 2016;Bates et al 2017aBates et al , 2017bPetrie et al 2016Petrie et al , 2017.…”

‘Multi-cropping’, Intercropping and Adaptation to Variable Environments in Indus South Asia

“…Interpretation of these data is further complicated by plant morphology, particularly the fact that while Panicum sp. millet produces many more seeds per head than either wheat or barley, millet seeds are smaller and less calorific per grain (Bates et al 2017b). Therefore, while summer crops were present at Harappa throughout the sequence, it is arguable that the preserved quantities of seeds indicate that they were a relatively minor component of the overall crop assemblage, particularly in contrast to the exploitation of wheat and barley.…”

“…During the PGW period, crop proportions suggest that mixed intercropping of millet was predominant in the summer season, but that the overarching strategy involved sequential multi-cropping when the winter season crops are taken into consideration. It is notable, however, that no macro remains of winter weeds were attested, despite the phytolith evidence suggesting their presence (Bates 2016, Bates et al 2017b). Exploitation of pulses and fruits at PGW period Burj was even more limited than at Dabli vas Chugta.…”

“…This apparent absence of winter weeds is interesting as some winter crops were present, suggesting either that weeds were removed during crop processing, or possibly that winter grain was imported from elsewhere. However, the presence of winter cereal chaff phytoliths and Pooideae leaf/stem elements (Bates 2016;Bates et al 2017b) suggests that early stage crop processing, as well as late stage processing, occurred on or near the site. It is thus less likely that these cereals were being imported to the site as a whole cereal ear including stem and stalk than that they were being grown in the vicinity of the site.…”