Exploring mechanisms of racial disparities in intimate partner violence among sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth.

Abstract

Objective: Sexual and gender minority people of color (SGM-POC) report higher rates of intimate partner violence (IPV) than White SGM, adding to growing evidence that people holding multiple stigmatized social identities are at particular risk for adverse experiences. We aimed to identify mechanisms underlying the racial/ethnic disparities in IPV among SGM, focusing on childhood experiences of violence, structural inequalities, and sexual minority stress. Method: 308 SGM assigned female-at-birth (AFAB; 82 White, 133 Black, 93 Latinx; age 16-31) self-reported on minor psychological, severe psychological, physical, and sexual IPV victimization and perpetration, and three proposed mechanisms: childhood violence (child abuse, witnessing interparental violence), structural inequalities (economic stress, racial discrimination), and sexual minority stressors (internalized heterosexism, anti-SGM victimization, low social support). Indirect effects of race on IPV victimization via hypothesized mechanisms were estimated using logistic regression with 5,000 bootstrapped samples. Results: Compared to White participants, Black participants were 2.5-7.03 times more likely to report all eight IPV types; Latinx participants were 2.5-4.8 times more likely to experience four IPV types. Univariate indirect effects analyses indicated that these racial/ethnic disparities were partially explained by higher economic stress, racial/ethnic discrimination, and childhood violence experiences (for Black and Latinx participants) and lower social support (Black participants). In multivariate models, the most robust indirect effects were through racial/ethnic discrimination and childhood violence. Conclusions: Findings underscore the need for policy and interventions aimed at preventing IPV among SGM-POC by targeting factors that contribute to IPV disparities in this group, particularly racial/ethnic discrimination and family violence. Public Significance StatementAmong sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth, those who also identify as a racial minority are at heightened risk for intimate partner violence (IPV). An exploration of the mechanisms behind these racial disparities revealed that they are largely accounted for by higher levels of racial discrimination and childhood violence experienced by racial minority, compared to White, individuals.

Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Among Sexual Minority People and Associated Factors: A Systematic Review of Quantitative Studies

“…Characteristics of the Social Network and Social Support Perceived instrumental support by family, friends, and colleagues was negatively associated to IPV perpetration in two studies (Wei et al, 2020a , 2020b ; Whitton et al, 2021 ). However, in Whitton et al ( 2021 ), this relation was significant only when considering physical, sexual, and severe psychological IPV perpetration, while it was not supported when considering minor psychological IPV. In contrast, social support was not related with IPV perpetration in three studies (Edwards et al, 2021 ; Reuter et al, 2015 ; Zavala, 2017 ).…”

“…First, differences in the operationalization of violence and in the used instruments were found. Thirty-nine studies assessed IPV perpetration with some version of the conflict tactics scale (CTS; Ayhan Balik & Bilgin, 2021 ; Bartholomew et al, 2008a , b ; Causby et al, 1995 ; Balsam & Szymanski, 2005 ; Chong et al, 2013 ; Craft & Serovich, 2005 ; Craft et al, 2008 ; Edwards & Sylaska, 2013 ; Edwards et al, 2021 ; Leone et al, 2022 ; Lewis et al, 2017 ; Li et al, 2019 , 2022 ; Li & Zheng, 2021 ; Gabbay & Lafontaine, 2017a ; Gabbay & Lafontaine, 2017b ; Jones & Raghavan, 2012 ; Kelley et al, 2014 ; Landolt & Dutton, 1997 ; Lewis et al, 2018 ; Mason et al, 2016 ; McKenry et al, 2006 ; Milletich et al, 2014 ; Oringher & Samuelson, 2011 ; Pepper & Sand, 2015 ; Pistella et al, 2022 ; Stephenson et al, 2011b ; Stults et al, 2021b ; Swan et al, 2021 ; Swann et al, 2021 ; Taylor & Neppl, 2020 ; Tognasso et al, 2022 ; Whitton et al, 2021 ; Wu et al, 2015 ; Stults et al, 2015b ; Stults et al, 2016 ; Waterman et al, 1989 ; Whitton et al, 2019 ; Zavala, 2017 ). Other used assessment tools were the Intimate Partner Violence Among Gay and Bisexual Men (IPV-GBM) Scale (10 studies; Davis et al, 2016 ; Jones & Raghavan, 2012 ; Sharma et al, 2021 ; Stephenson & Finneran, 2016 ; Stephenson & Finneran, 2017 ; Suarez et al, 2018 ; Wei et al, 2020a , b , 2021 ; Zhu et al, 2021 ); the Psychological Maltreatmen...…”

“…Second, only 15 studies (Balsam & Szymanski, 2005 ; Davis et al, 2016 ; Edwards et al, 2021 ; Fortunata & Kohn, 2003 ; Jones & Raghavan, 2012 ; Sharma et al, 2021 ; Stephenson & Finneran, 2016 ; Stephenson & Finneran, 2017 ; Suarez et al, 2018 ; Swann et al, 2021 ; Wei et al, 2020a , b ; Whitton et al, 2019 ; Whitton et al, 2021 ; Zhu et al, 2021 ) included instruments or items that addressed abusive tactics specific to sexual minority people (e.g., threats of outing, homonegativity, and negative HIV-related attitudes). Furthermore, only slightly more than half of the studies were focused on the variables associated to the violence perpetrated within a same-sex relationship (40 studies; Ayhan Balik & Bilgin, 2021 ; Balsam & Szymanski, 2005 ; Bartholomew et al, 2008a , b ; Bartholomew et al, 2008a , b ; Carvalho et al, 2011 ; Chong et al, 2013 ; Craft & Serovich, 2005 ; Davis et al, 2016 ; Edwards & Sylaska, 2013 ; Fontanesi et al, 2020 ; Gabbay & Lafontaine, 2017a ; Gabbay & Lafontaine, b ; Jacobson et al, 2015 ; Jones & Raghavan, 2012 ; Kahle et al, 2020 ; Kelley et al, 2014 ; Landolt & Dutton, 1997 ; Leone et al, 2022 ; Lewis et al, 2017 ; Lewis et al, 2018 ; Li et al, 2019 , 2022 ; Li & Zheng, 2021 ; Longares et al, 2018b ; Mason et al, 2016 ; Milletich et al, 2014 ; Pepper & Sand, 2015 ; Pistella et al, 2022 ; Poorman & Seelau, 2001 ; Schilit et al, 1990 ; Sharma et al, 2021 ; Stephenson & Finneran, 2016 ; Stephenson et al,…”

“…Regardless of their self-identified sexual orientation, 17 studies recruited participants on the basis of their involvement in a same-sex relationship (Balsam & Szymanski, 2005 ; Craft & Serovich, 2005 ; Craft et al, 2008 ; Edwards & Sylaska, 2013 ; Jones & Raghavan, 2012 ; Kahle et al, 2020 ; Kelley et al, 2014 ; Leone et al, 2022 ; Li et al, 2019 , 2022 ; Li & Zheng, 2021 ; Milletich et al, 2014 ; Pepper & Sand, 2015 ; Stephenson et al, 2011a , b ; Suarez et al, 2018 ; Waterman et al, 1989 ; Wu et al, 2015 ), while twelve articles were focused on people who reported non-heterosexual sexual behaviors (Davis et al, 2016 ; Krahé et al, 2000 ; Miltz et al, 2019 ; Stults et al, 2015a , b , 2016 , 2021a , b ; Wei et al, 2020a , b , 2021 ; Zhu et al, 2021 ). In five studies, participants were recruited based on one of the criteria reported above (i.e., sexual orientation, same-sex relationship, sexual behaviors; Messinger et al, 2021 ; Swann et al, 2021 ; Whitton et al, 2019 , 2021 ; Wong et al, 2010 ). Five articles did not specify based on what criteria they defined their participants as sexual minority people (Carvalho et al, 2011 ; Causby et al, 1995 ; McKenry et al, 2006 ; Landolt & Dutton, 1997 ; Schilit et al, 1991 ).…”

“…Sexual orientation was not associated with IPV perpetration. Black and Latin participants were at increased risk of IPV perpetration Whitton et al ( 2021 ) Exploring mechanisms of racial disparities in intimate partner violence among sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth USA N = 308 (AFAB SGM) Minor psychological, severe psychological, physical, and sexual IPV SGM-CTS2 Black participants were more likely to report physical, psychological, and sexual IPV perpetration than White participants; Latinx participants were more likely to report more severe psychological, and physical, and sexual IPV perpetration than White participants. No other differences emerged between Black, Latin, and White participants on minor or severe psychological, physical, or sexual IPV perpetration.…”