Exploring the Validity of Behavioral Cues Predictive of Physically Resisting Arrest

When Suspects Resist Arrest: Prevalence, Correlates, and Implications for Front-Line Policing

“…Despite there being a growing related field of research focusing on 'why people obey the law' (see McCluskey et al, 1999;Tyler, 2006), there have been comparatively fewer studies that focus on 'why people resist'. Typically, suspect resistant research focuses on comparisons between those who resist and those who do not (Belvedere et al, 2005;Bierie, 2017;Crawford & Burns, 2002;Johnson, 2019;Kavanagh, 1997) or the level of resistance (Whichard & Felson, 2016), while some researchers examine the different types of resistance. For example, Reisig et al (2004) examined passive and active disrespect.…”

“…Consequently, successful prevention can also reduce further negative outcomes for offenders. For example, Johnson (2019) argues that if the suspect was to resist and the situation escalated, minor offenses may turn into more serious consequences. The offender may receive additional charges (such as resisting arrest and assault) and subsequent court proceedings and other flow-on effects that can impact the offender.…”

Can Police Officers Foresee the Future? Predicting Outcomes from Thin Slices of Police-Public Encounters

“…Presumably this difference reflects the fact that officers are more frequently involved in (or exposed to) encounters in which they are at risk of being physically harmed (as was demonstrated in this study through selfreport). This likely increases an officer's ability to identify cues associated with harm in such situations (as was demonstrated in, e.g., Johnson's [2015Johnson's [ , 2019 studies) and increases vigilance to behavioural indicators that one believes are likely to lead to violence (Riggs, Rothbaum, & Foa, 1995). 12 Trials in which the subject did not harm or attempt to harm the officer(s) in the video.…”

“…The challenges with using many of the cues discussed above to make predictions include the fact that different individuals will likely have different baselines with respect to the frequency with which they exhibit certain behaviours (Johnson, 2006(Johnson, , 2007(Johnson, , 2019Vrij, Akehurst, & Morris, 1997), and these baselines may be affected by a range of factors. These factors can include ethnicity, culture, and emotional agitation (Johnson, 2006(Johnson, , 2007, the setting within which a person finds themselves (Johnson, 2019), as well as personality traits, such as self-consciousness and behavioural control (Vrij et al, 1997). In the words of Ekman and Friesen (1967), individuals may have their own "basal position" (p. 719).…”

“…Although this study did not examine which behaviours were predictive of violence (i.e., it examined cues that participants thought would be predictive of violence), a more recent study by PREDICTING OUTCOMES FROM THIN SLICES Johnson (2019) examined nine behaviours, most of which overlapped with those examined by Johnson (2015), to assess whether these could in fact be predictive of violence. He found that "fighter's stance," "invades personal space," "hands in pockets," and "clenched hands" -all behaviours that officers reported to be of very high or high concern for impending violence in Johnson (2015) were associated with violent interactions between the officer(s) and subject in the videos (Johnson, 2019). On the other hand, "looks around area" and "pacing" -behaviours that officers reported to be of high and moderate concern, respectively, in Johnson (2015) -were found to be displayed less often for subjects who were violent compared to non-violent subjects.…”