“…Since then, extensive efforts have been made to test the validity and the reliability of the ESS (e.g., Ribeiro et al 2018; Woosnam 2011a, 2011b, 2012; Woosnam and Aleshinloye 2013), and the scale has been found appropriate in measuring emotional solidarity of both residents (Woosnam 2011b, 2012) and tourists (Woosnam and Aleshinloye 2013; Woosnam, Dudensing, and Walker 2015; Woosnam et al 2015) within the United States. More recently, studies outside of the United States, in nations like Cape Verde (Ribeiro et al 2018), Japan (Woosnam, Maruyama, and Boley 2016), Macau (Lai and Hitchcock 2017; Li and Wan 2017), Malaysia (Hasani, Moghavvemi, and Hamzah 2016), Nigeria (Woosnam, Aleshinloye, and Maruyama 2016; Woosnam et al 2016), and South Korea (Joo, Cho, and Woosnam 2019), have demonstrated the cross-cultural applicability of the scale as well.…”