Explosives

Abstract

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 2. Physical Properties and Chemical Reactions 2.1. Detonation 2.1.1. Ideal Detonation 2.1.2. Deflagration and Detonation 2.2. Prediction of Detonation Data 2.2.1. Complete Calculation 2.2.2. Approximation Methods 2.3. Nonideal Detonation Waves and Explosives 2.3.1. Nonideal Explosive Compositions 2.3.2. Detonation of Cylindrical Cartridges 2.3.3. Low‐ and High‐Order Detonation Velocity 2.3.4. The Effect of Confinement 2.4. The Buildup of Detonation 2.4.1. Combustion – Deflagration – Detonation Transition (DDT) 2.4.2. Shock‐to‐Detonation Transition (SDT) 2.4.3. Shock and Impact Sensitivity 2.5. Classification of Explosives 2.6. Functional Groups 2.6.1. Nitro Group 2.6.2. Other Groups 3. Application 3.1. Energy Transfer from the Explosive to the Surroundings 3.1.1. Shock and Blast Waves 3.1.2. Casing and Liner Acceleration 3.2. High Compression of Solids 3.3. Metal Forming and Welding 3.4. Rock Blasting 3.5. Perforators, Shaped or Hollow Charges 4. Primary Explosives 5. Secondary Explosives 5.1. Production 5.2. Specific Secondary Explosives 5.2.1. Nitrate Esters 5.2.2. Aromatic Nitro Compounds 5.2.3. N ‐Nitro Derivatives 6. High Explosive Mixtures 6.1. Desensitized Explosives 6.2. TNT Mixtures 6.3. Plastic‐Bonded Explosives (PBX) 7. Industrial Explosives 7.1. Dynamites 7.2. Ammonium Nitrate Explosives (Ammonites) 7.3. Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil Explosives (ANFO/ANC Explosives) 7.4. Slurries and Water Gels 7.5. Emulsion Explosives 7.6. Uses 8. Test Methods 8.1. Performance Tests 8.2. Safety 9. Legal Aspects and Production 9.1. Safety Regulations 9.2. Production of Military Explosives 10. Toxicology and Occupational Health

The Crystal and Molecular Structure of Mercury Fulminate (Knallquecksilber)

“…The wide application of dynamite was only possible when the use of Hg(CNO) 2 as primary explosive guaranteed a safe ignition [13]. For this purpose it is now replaced by lead azide which is more stable on storage [15].…”

Historical and current usage of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): A literature review

“…Warheads that require improved mechanical properties and stability at high temperatures will have the wax replaced with thermoplastics, which can include a fluorinated polymer. An example is HMX and 1,3,5‐triamino‐2,4,6‐trinitrobenzene (TATB) mixed with 10 wt% fluorinated polymer 148 . Viton‐A and PCTFE are commonly used as binders for plastic bonded explosives (PBX) 149,150 .…”

“…The energetic material itself can also be fluorinated 154 . A difluoroamine group provides explosive character, increases density and volatility, lowers the melting point and detonation velocity, and increases impact sensitivity 148 . Different types of PFAS were investigated for use in tagging blasting caps so that they could later be detected at security checkpoints 155 …”

“…An example is HMX and 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene (TATB) mixed with 10 wt% fluorinated polymer. 148 Viton-A and PCTFE are commonly used as binders for plastic bonded explosives (PBX). 149,150 Viton-A based PBX compositions are preferred as they provide better mechanical properties compared to other traditional explosive compositions and thermal stability.…”

Research on the reaction mechanism of 2,4,6‐trinitrotoluene resource utilization I: Formation of 2,4,6‐trinitrobenzoic acid in acetic acid with N,N′,N″‐trihydroxyisocyanuric acid catalyst

“…Even though new types of energetic materials are being developed with each passing year, such as fused heterocycle-based energetic materials 1 and nitropyrazole type energetic materials, [2][3][4] traditional energetic materials are still irreplaceable in military and industrial fields. [5][6][7] 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT), as a high explosive with excellent stability and deflagration performance and the first large-scale applied by human beings, is still kept at a high level of reserve worldwide. However, the long-term storage of TNT leads to a gradual decrease in the content of stabilizer.…”