Exposure to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and survivor attitudes toward génocidaires: A 20-year postscript.

Kang, Ezer; Delzell, Darcie A. P.; Mbonyingabo, Christophe; Ngendahayo, Sylvestre

doi:10.1037/pac0000180

Cited by 8 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 69 publications

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“…Symptoms included trauma-related recurrent automatic thoughts, dreams, flashbacks, pain, sleeplessness, irritability/anger burst, difficulties in concentrating, awareness of danger, and exaggerated startle reflex. A Kinyarwandan translation of this instrument (Rimé et al, 2011) was used in our earlier study in Rwanda (Kang et al, 2016). Total scores ranged from 10 to 50 with higher values indicating more traumatic stress symptoms.…”

Section: Traumatic Stressmentioning

confidence: 99%

Is outgroup prejudice passed down generationally in Rwanda after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi?

Kang¹,

Mbonyingabo²,

Qin³

et al. 2022

Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology

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Family members who witnessed the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi arguably shape their children's narratives of the events and subsequent formation of outgroup prejudice. An understanding of whether vestiges of the genocide are transmitted to future generations informs ongoing peacebuilding efforts. We, therefore, examined the relationship between child and guardian attitudes toward one's outgroup among households of survivors or génocidaires and investigated whether this relationship was potentially affected by social interactions with members of outgroups (survivors or génocidaires) outside the family. We interviewed 588 members of survivor (153 guardian-child dyads) and génocidaire (141 guardian-child dyads) households in the Muhanga district of Rwanda to investigate whether children, 12-18 years old, conveyed their parents' outgroup prejudice after parents participated in a local peace intervention compared to when children participated in similar programming for youth. Structural equation modeling (SEM) results indicated that survivors' and génocidaires' outgroup prejudice did not influence their children's formation of these beliefs. Nor did children affect their guardians in this regard. However, other factors influenced children's beliefs in both households. In survivor households, children who endorsed more positive attitudes toward génocidaires reported stronger family relationships and more frequent interaction with génocidaires after adjusting for child age and gender, and guardian's gender. In génocidaire households, children's positive beliefs about survivors were influenced by more interactions with survivors and living with a guardian who participated in peace interventions. Rather than being passively shaped by their guardians' experiences, our results suggested that a new generation of viewpoints was being formed by relationships within and outside the family. Public Significance StatementThe children of survivors and génocidaires who directly experienced the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda do not share their parents' perceptions of people from outgroups-that is those who perpetrated harm or those victimized by it during the genocide. However, children's regard of outgroups in both households was influenced more by the quality of family relationships and the frequency of their interactions with members of their outgroup.

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Section: Traumatic Stressmentioning

confidence: 99%

Is outgroup prejudice passed down generationally in Rwanda after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi?

Kang¹,

Mbonyingabo²,

Qin³

et al. 2022

Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology

Self Cite

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“…Based on previous findings (Kang et al, 2016;Schaal et al, 2012;Scull, Mbonyingabo, & Mayriam, 2016), the extensive field work of our community partner, and the aims of CFP, we selected the following measures that reflected how survivors and g enocidaires were impacted differently by the genocide in 1994.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Symptoms included traumarelated recurrent automatic thoughts, dreams, flashbacks, pain, sleeplessness, irritability/anger burst, difficulties in concentrating, awareness of danger, and exaggerated startle reflex. A Kinyarwandan version of this instrument developed by Rim e et al (2011) was used in our earlier study in Rwanda (Kang, Delzell, Mbonyingabo, & Ngendahayo, 2016). Sum scores ranged from 10 to 50 with higher values indicating more traumatic stress.…”

Section: Sociodemographicmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This has contributed in part to dormant animosity between victims who survived the genocide and g enocidaires who were convicted of crimes during the genocide between April and July 1994 (Longman, 2017;Otake, 2019;Purdekova, 2015). 1 A study conducted 20 years after the genocide in Rwanda, for example, showed that survivors who experienced more genocide events remained ambivalent about interacting with g enocidaires (Kang, Delzell, Mbonyingabo, & Ngendahayo, 2016). Another study conducted 15 years after the genocide found that survivors and g enocidaires who experienced and witnessed more killings during the genocide similarly reported more frequent symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and/or depression than those who experienced less violent events (Schaal, Weierstall, Dusingizemungu, & Elbert, 2012).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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A Winding Road to Peace Building: Longitudinal Outcomes of a Peace Intervention for Survivors and Génocidaires of the1994 Genocide Against the Tutsiin Rwanda

Kang

Delzell

Snyder

et al. 2020

American J of Comm Psychol

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This longitudinal study examined outcomes of a local peace‐building intervention that applied principles of intergroup contact to promote reconciliation between génocidaires and survivors whom they have directly harmed during the 1994 Genocide Against the Tutsi in Rwanda. Individual interviews were conducted with 46 génocidaires and 45 survivors whom they have directly harmed during the genocide at 7‐time points over the course of their 22‐month participation in three programmatic activities (workshops, cell groups, and cooperative cow raising). One thousand bootstrapped samples generated to measure changes in outcomes indicated that survivors and génocidaires regarded themselves and those who directly impacted them during the genocide more positively after 22 months. Although both survivors and génocidaires experienced significant decline in trauma symptomatology after 22 months, they responded to programmatic activities differently. Cell group interactions sustained some positive outcomes (génocidaires perceived forgiveness by others) after the workshops and further improved others (génocidaires self‐forgiveness). Survivors who participated in cell groups and raised cows with génocidaires demonstrated further willingness to reconcile compared to survivors who participated in cell groups alone. Our findings empirically support the benefits of promoting different forms of intergroup interactions long after a period of intense violence and highlight the importance of considering how the trajectories of outcomes can inform program and theory development. Highlights Survivors and génocidaires in Rwanda benefited from a local intergroup contact intervention (CI). However, génocidaires and survivors they directly harmed benefited differently over 22‐months. Preparing survivors and génocidaires with skills to participate in communal life is critical for CI. Highlighting both CI outcomes and trajectories are essential for program and theory development.

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“…Most of the existing research regarding justice and revenge in the context of widespread trauma has been focused on genocide and war injustices (Bayer, Klasen, & Adam, 2007), such as survivors in Rwanda genocide (Kang, Delzell, Mbonyingabo, & Ngendahayo, 2016;Pham, Weinstein, & Longman, 2004;Staub, Pearlman, Gubin, & Hagengimana, 2005), Khmer Rouge tribunals (Field & Chhim, 2008;Sonis et al, 2009), and Kosovo war survivors (Başoğlu et al, 2005;Biro et al, 2004;Halimi, Dragoti, Halimi, Sylejmani-Hulaj, & Jashari-Ramadani, 2015;Lopes Cardozo, Kaiser, Gotway, & Agani, 2003;Lopes Cardozo, Vergara, Agani, & Gotway, 2000), not mass trauma related to terrorism. Some of the above quantitative studies have developed and used quantitative scales to measure justice and revenge.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A mixed methods study of satisfaction with justice and desire for revenge in survivors of the September 11, 2001, attacks on New York City's World Trade Center

Ayvaci

Pollio

Sonis

et al. 2019

Int J Methods Psych Res

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Objective This study used mixed methods to investigate satisfaction with justice and desire for revenge in a sample of employees from New York City agencies affected by the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. Methods A volunteer sample of 196 employees of eight affected agencies provided a short essay about what justice means to them in relation to the 9/11 attacks, followed by 20 quantitative questions covering personal experiences and perceptions of 9/11‐related justice. Wilcoxon rank sum tests were performed for bivariate comparisons of quantitative items and qualitative thematic codes. Mixed methods analysis was used to inspect the associations of the content of all text coded for themes with quantitative categories within and across domains. Results Only the revenge domain showed a significant association between the quantitative category and the qualitative theme. The quantitative revenge category was positively associated with the qualitative justice through safety theme. Examination of qualitative content provided insights into the relationships with quantitative constructs. Conclusion Qualitative and mixed methods research on justice and revenge in mass casualty settings add new findings to the existing literature and have the potential to contribute to the interpretation and potential expansion of topic areas assessed by quantitative scales.

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Exposure to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and survivor attitudes toward génocidaires: A 20-year postscript.

Cited by 8 publications

References 69 publications

Is outgroup prejudice passed down generationally in Rwanda after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi?

Is outgroup prejudice passed down generationally in Rwanda after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi?

A Winding Road to Peace Building: Longitudinal Outcomes of a Peace Intervention for Survivors and Génocidaires of the1994 Genocide Against the Tutsiin Rwanda

A mixed methods study of satisfaction with justice and desire for revenge in survivors of the September 11, 2001, attacks on New York City's World Trade Center

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