Extracellular Vesicles as Innovative Tool for Diagnosis, Regeneration and Protection against Neurological Damage

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have recently attracted a great deal of interest as they may represent a new biosignaling paradigm. According to the mode of biogenesis, size and composition, two broad categories of EVs have been described, exosomes and microvesicles. EVs have been shown to carry cargoes of signaling proteins, RNA species, DNA and lipids. Once released, their content is selectively taken up by near or distant target cells, influencing their behavior. Exosomes are involved in cell–cell communication in a wide range of embryonic developmental processes and in fetal–maternal communication. In the present review, an outline of the role of EVs in neural development, regeneration and diseases is presented. EVs can act as regulators of normal homeostasis, but they can also promote either neuroinflammation/degeneration or tissue repair in pathological conditions, depending on their content. Since EV molecular cargo constitutes a representation of the origin cell status, EVs can be exploited in the diagnosis of several diseases. Due to their capability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB), EVs not only have been suggested for the diagnosis of central nervous system disorders by means of minimally invasive procedures, i.e., “liquid biopsies”, but they are also considered attractive tools for targeted drug delivery across the BBB. From the therapeutic perspective, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent one of the most promising sources of EVs. In particular, the neuroprotective properties of MSCs derived from the dental pulp are here discussed.

The Diagnostic Value of Exosome-Derived Biomarkers in Alzheimer's Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Meta-Analysis

“…Neurodegenerative disease-associated proteins or miRNAs, such as Aβ1-42, tau, p-tau, and miRNA-22 are secreted in exosomes during their formation (Jia et al, 2019 ; Barbagallo et al, 2020 ). Interestingly, exosomes may readily penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and spread throughout the brain via synaptic delivery (Andjus et al, 2020 ) as a result of their small size and cell membrane-like structure. Previous studies have also shown that intravenously injected exosomes can move across the BBB and transfer biological molecules into neurons (Alvarez-Erviti et al, 2011 ).…”

MicroRNAs at the Crossroad of the Dichotomic Pathway Cell Death vs. Stemness in Neural Somatic and Cancer Stem Cells: Implications and Therapeutic Strategies

“…The decisive discovery has come from the observation that such exosomes are secreted by cortical neurons [ 39 ] and represent an efficient delivery method for integrating different miRNAs into the target neural cells [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Therefore, miRNAs have gained further attention because of their property to be inserted into mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and to be released with a paracrine function or transported in order to follow an endocytic pathway [ 44 ].…”

Profiling Inflammatory Extracellular Vesicles in Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid: An Optimized Diagnostic Model for Parkinson’s Disease

“…Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as novel and sensitive biomarkers for neurodegenerative diseases [4,5]. EVs are a heterogeneous population of membrane particles involved in physiological cell-to-cell communication and transmission of biological signals.…”