Extracellular vesicles: cross-organismal RNA trafficking in plants, microbes, and mammalian cells

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed nanometer-scale particles that transport biological materials such as RNAs, proteins, and metabolites. EVs have been discovered in nearly all kingdoms of life as a form of cellular communication across different cells and between interacting organisms. EV research has primarily focused on EV-mediated intra-organismal transport in mammals, which has led to the characterization of a plethora of EV contents from diverse cell types with distinct and impactful physiological effects. In contrast, research into EV-mediated transport in plants has focused on inter-organismal interactions between plants and interacting microbes. However, the overall molecular content and functions of plant and microbial EVs remain largely unknown. Recent studies into the plant-pathogen interface have demonstrated that plants produce and secrete EVs that transport small RNAs into pathogen cells to silence virulence-related genes. Plant-interacting microbes such as bacteria and fungi also secrete EVs which transport proteins, metabolites, and potentially RNAs into plant cells to enhance their virulence. This review will focus on recent advances in EV-mediated communications in plant-pathogen interactions compared to the current state of knowledge of mammalian EV capabilities and highlight the role of EVs in cross-kingdom RNA interference.

Distinct small RNAs are expressed at different stages of Phytophthora capsici and play important roles in development and pathogenesis

“…miR91 contributes to mycelial growth, sporangia production, zoospore production and virulence in P. capsici . Its target 503142 participates in intracellular trafficking, secretion, and vesicular transport as extracellular vesicles could transport small RNAs into pathogen cells to silence virulence-related genes ( Cai et al, 2023 ). In summary, sRNAs play important roles in the development and pathogenicity of Phytophthora , they are involved in regulating of many genes in P. capsici spatio-temporally.…”

Applications of emerging extracellular vesicles technologies in the treatment of inflammatory diseases

“…Compared to conventional EVs, these emerging EVs can be engineered with specific markers to improve their targeting, allowing them to more effectively reach and act on inflamed or damaged tissues (7). Based on their unique origin and biological activity, these emerging EVs offer new possibilities for personalized and tailored therapies, especially in the treatment of inflammatory diseases (12,13). The development of these emerging extracellular vesicle technologies not only extends our understanding of the role of EVs in physiological and pathological processes, but also provides new therapeutic tools and strategies, especially in the treatment of inflammatory diseases (14).…”

Membrane vesicle engineering with “à la carte” bacterial‐immunogenic molecules for organism‐free plant vaccination

“…In this context, we propose to employ engineered MVs as a platform for the generation of organism-free plant vaccines. Thus, upon the application of engineered MVs onto the plant leaves, the selected T3Es will be efficiently delivered into the lumen of the vegetal cells, triggering strong ETI responses on selected plants as shown elsewhere (Cai et al, 2023;McMillan et al, 2021;Wang et al, 2023). In this manner, boosting the host MAMP-and effector-triggered immunities will render the plant vaccinated against upcoming infections by a plethora of phytopathogens, since both defence responses can confer long-lasting resistance against different bacteria (Cai et al, 2019;Durrant & Dong, 2004) (Figure 3).…”